Учебные тексты с упражнениями для студентов III-IV курса специальности 130406 «Обогащение полезных ископаемых» по дисциплине «Английский язык»

Министерство образования Республики Башкортостан

Государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение

среднего профессионального образования

Акъярский горный колледж имени И. Тасимова

Учебные тексты с упражнениями

для студентов III-IV курса специальности

130406 «Обогащение полезных ископаемых»

по дисциплине «Английский язык»

Методическое пособие для преподавателей и студентов среднепрофессиональных учебных заведений

СОГЛАСОВАНО Председатель ПЦК ОГСД _________Бактыбаева А.Х. Протокол №_______________ "_____" _____________2012 г.

УТВЕРЖДАЮ Заместитель директора по УР _________Максютова Л.А. "_____" _____________2012 г.

Разработала:

преподаватель английского языка

Бактыбаева А.Х.

с.Акъяр

2012 г.

Аннотация

Настоящее учебное пособие предназначено для студентов средних специальных учебных заведений горно-обогатительного профиля. По своим учебным целям и содержанию пособие соответствует Федеральным государственным образовательным стандартам, требованиям программы по иностранному языку для неязыковых ссузов, рабочей программе по дисциплине «Английский язык для специальностей «Обогащение полезных ископаемых»» и календарно-тематическому планированию учебных занятий. Область профессиональной деятельности будущего специалиста – обогащение полезных ископаемых. Квалификация – горный техник-технолог. Пособие предназначено для аудиторных занятий и самостоятельной работы.

Данное учебное пособие способствует формированию у студентов следующих компетенций:

^{ОК 1. Понимать сущность и социальную значимость своей будущей профессии, проявлять к ней устойчивый интерес.}

^{ОК 2. Организовывать собственную деятельность, выбирать типовые методы и способы выполнения профессиональных задач, оценивать их эффективность и качество.}

^{ОК 3. Принимать решения в стандартных и нестандартных ситуациях и нести за них ответственность.}

^{ОК 4. Осуществлять поиск и использование информации, необходимой для эффективного выполнения профессиональных задач, профессионального и личностного развития.}

^{ОК 5. Использовать информационно-коммуникационные технологии в профессиональной деятельности.}

^{ОК 6. Работать в коллективе и в команде, эффективно общаться с коллегами, руководством, потребителями.}

^{ОК 7. Брать на себя ответственность за работу членов команды (подчиненных), за результат выполнения заданий.}

^{ОК 8. Самостоятельно определять задачи профессионального и личностного развития, заниматься самообразованием, осознанно планировать повышение квалификации.}

^{ОК 9. Ориентироваться в условиях частой смены технологий в профессиональной деятельности.}

^{ПК 1.6. Контролировать и анализировать качество исходного сырья и продуктов обогащения.}

При составлении учебного пособия преследовалась основная цель – подвести студентов к чтению и пониманию оригинальной литературы по специальности, привить им навыки аннотирования и реферирования научных текстов в пределах проработанной тематики, и уметь вести беседу по тематике, близкой к их будущей специальности (владение речевыми клише, сообщение информации на уровне монологического высказывания и др.).

Учебное пособие содержит следующие разделы:

1. Основной курс (тексты и упражнения по различным аспектам языка и творческие задания).

2. Дополнительные тексты для чтения и развития навыков устной речи.

3. Глоссарий (англо-английский толковый словарь основных терминов для студентов специальности обогащение полезных ископаемых).

4. Англо-русский словарь, в который включены слова из текстов и упражнений основного курса.

Основной курс состоит из текстов двух уровней сложности – среднего – А и продвинутого – B. Тексты основного курса отражают сведения об основных минералах, добываемых на территории Российской Федерации, аутентичны и написаны доступным языком с высокой повторяемостью лексического материала. Тексты снабжены тематическим словарем.

Упражнения разработаны как по различным аспектам языка: на фонетику, лексику, грамматику, - так и коммуникативные. Все упражнения созданы исключительно на лексике специальности “Обогащение полезных ископаемых”. Преподаватель свободен в выборе упражнений к текстам в зависимости от уровня подготовленности студентов.

Как работать с книгой самостоятельно

1. Чтобы найти интересующую вас тему, вы можете просмотреть оглавление, содержащее заголовки текстов.

2. При выборе текста необходимо помнить, что тексты относятся к двум уровням сложности (А) и (В). Выберите текст, соответствующий вашему уровню владения языком.

3. Как работать с текстом:

   • прочитайте текст; при чтении и переводе текста удобно пользоваться тематическим словарем, приводимом после каждого текста;

   • после того, как вы познакомитесь с содержанием текста и усвоите словарь, попробуйте ответить на вопросы. Если это сделать трудно, обратитесь к тексту;

   • проделайте упражнения после каждого текста;

   • выделите и запишите (на русском или английском языке) тему каждого абзаца;

   • пересказывать каждый текст следует не менее двух раз. При первом пересказе воспользуйтесь не самим текстом, а словарем к нему. Словарь составлен в том порядке, в котором слова встречаются в тексте; второй раз текст следует пересказывать, закрыв книгу. Если это не получается, вернитесь к предыдущему пункту;

   • если вы выбрали текст сложности (А) и успешно справились со всеми заданиями, попробуйте освоить текст (В) по той же теме (если он есть).

А. Х. Бактыбаева

CHAPTER 1. Key Information about Metals A

METALS AND NONMETALS

There are some distinctions between metals and nonmetals. Metals are distinguished from nonmetals by their high conductivity for heat and electricity, by metallic luster and by their resistance to electric current. Their use in industry is explained not only by those properties, but also by the fact that their properties, such as strength and hardness, can be greatly improved by alloying them with other metals.

There are several important groups of metals and alloys. The common metals such as iron, copper, zinc, etc. are produced in great quantities.

The so-called precious metals include silver, gold, platinum and palladium. The light metals are aluminium, beryllium and titanium. They are important in aircraft and rocket construction.

Many elements are classified as semimetals (bismuth, for example) because they have much poorer conductivity than common metals.

Nonmetals (carbon, silicon, sulphur) in the solid state are usually brittle materials without metallic luster and are usually poor conductors of electricity. Nonmetals show great variety of chemical properties than common metals do.

Metals can undergo corrosion, changing in this case their chemical and electromechanical properties. In order to protect metals from corrosion the products made of metals and steel are coated by some films (coatings). Organic coatings protect metals and steel from corrosion by forming a corrosion-resistant barrier between metal or steel and the corrosive environment.

VOCABULARY

1. luster – блеск

2. property – свойство

3. quantity - количество

4. conductivity - проводимость

5. solid state – твердое состояние

6. brittle - хрупкий

7. undergo - подвергаться

8. to protect … from – защищать от

9. environment – окружающая среда

10. alloy - сплав

11. poor conductor – плохой проводник

12. distinction - различие

13. strength - прочность

14. hardness – твердость

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Answer to the following questions:

1. By what properties are metals distinguished from non-metals?

2. What common metals are produced in great quantities?

3. What metals are called light?

4. What properties do non-metals have?

5. What is done to protect metals from corrosion?

Ex. 2. Match the beginning and the end of the sentences and translate them:

There are some different groups of metals, such as:

light metals… common metals… precious metals… nonmetals…

iron, copper, zinc… silver, gold, platinum… aluminium, beryllium, titanium… carbon, silicon, sulphur… aluminium, beryllium, titanium…

Ex. 3. Make up the sentences from the following words and translate them into Russian:

1. There / several / alloys / groups / important / metals / of / and / are.

2. Metals / corrosion / undergo / can.

3. Organic / corrosion /coatings / protect / steel / metals / from /and.

4. Many / are / as / elements / classified / semimetals.

5. Nonmetals / properties / properties / chemical / show / great / variety / of.

METALS

Mankind has used metals for centuries in gradually increasing quantities but only now they are employed in really great quantities.

Today we know more than seventy metals, the majority of which are in industry.

Of all metals iron is the most important one. Absolutely pure iron is never prepared except for laboratory purpose. The iron and steels in use today are really alloys of iron, carbon and other substances. They can be made elastic, tough, hard, or comparatively soft.

Mechanical properties of metals are the result of their atomic structure. They include hardness, ductility and malleability which are of special importance in engineering.

Ductility is a capacity of a metal to be permanently deformed in tension without breaking.

Malleability is a capacity of a metal to be permanently deformed by compression without rupture.

These properties are similar to each other but not the same. Most metals increase these properties at higher temperatures.

The strength of a metal is the property of resistance to external loads and stresses.

These mechanical properties are of great importance in industrial purpose because all parts and units made of iron and steel must meet up-to-date demands.

VOCABULARY

1. quantity – количество

2. alloy – сплав

3. carbon – углерод

4. substance – вещество

5. tough(ness) – жесткий, жесткость

6. hard(ness) – твердый, твердость

7. ductility – ковкость

8. malleability – вязкость

9. tension – растяжение

10. compression - сжатие

11. rupture – разрыв

12. strength – прочность

13. breaking - поломка

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Find out as many words from the text as you can:

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Ex. 2. Answer to the following questions:

1. What is the most important metal?

2. What mechanical properties of metals do you know?

3. What is strength?

4. What is ductility?

5. What is malleability?

Ex. 3. Finish the sentences choosing the right end to each one and translate them:

The most important metal in use today are… Ductility is a capacity of a metal… Malleability is a capacity of a metal… The strength of a metal is the property…

carbon; iron; some other metal. …to resist to external loads and stresses. …to be permanently deformed by compression without rupture …to be permanently deformed in tension without breaking

ORES

The term metal is reserved for that chemical element which has two or more characteristic of metals (ductility, malleability, etc.) and is good conductor of heat and electricity.

Ore minerals are concentrated in small, localized rock masses that form as a result of special geologic processes, and such local concentrations are called mineral deposits. Mineral deposits are what prospectors seek. The terms ore mineral and mineral deposit were originally applied only to minerals and deposits from which metals are recovered.

All deposits consist of several ore mineral. They are called gangue. The more concentrated an ore mineral, the more valuable the mineral deposit. A mineral deposit that has a rich level of concentration and big size sufficiently rich to be worked at a profit is called an ore deposit. The assemblage of ore minerals plus gangue in ore deposit is called the ore.

All ore deposits are mineral deposits. ‘Ore deposit’ is an economic term, while ‘mineral deposit’ is a geologic term. Whether a given mineral deposit is also an ore deposit depends on many factors: a) the level of concentration, b) the size of the deposit; c) all factors that affect the mining, processing, and transporting of the ore must be considered as well. Among such factors are: a) the shape of a deposit, b) its depth below the surface, c) its geographic remoteness, d) access to transportation, e) the political stability of the region, f) market factors (the price of the metal in world trade and the cost of borrowing the money needed to develop a mine). Because market factors change continually, a given mineral deposit may sometimes be an ore deposit, but at other times it may be uneconomic and hence not an ore deposit.

Mineral deposits have been found both in rocks that lie beneath the oceans and in rocks that form the continents, although the only deposits that actually have been mined are in the continental rocks. The mining of ocean deposits lies in the future. The continental crust averages 35—40 kilometers in thickness, and below the crust the mantle lies. Mineral deposits may occur in the mantle, but with present technology it is not possible to discover them.

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Find in the text the words with the same root and translate them into Russian.

Example: ductile (adj) – вязкий, пластичный; ductility (n) – вязкость, пластичность

Malleable (adj), conduct (v), availability (n), mine (v), tenden­cy (n), prospect (v), mixture (n), value (n), profitable (adj), assemble (v), geology (n), remote (adj), use (v), stable (adj), average (adj), thick (adj).

Ex. 2. Choose the answer which you think fits best and translate the sentence into Russian

1) Metals are

1. all chemical elements possessing some metallic prop­erties are metals;

2. not all chemical elements possessing metallic prop­erties are metals;

3. the main properties of metals are heat and electric conductivity;

4. metals are chemical elements available through smelting

2) The ore is

(a) a concentration of a single mineral;

(b) an assemblage of some valuable minerals;

(c) an assemblage of valuable and valueless minerals;

(d) an assemblage of ore minerals and valueless minerals;

3) The ore deposit is that..

(a) any deposit should be called so;

(b) rich deposits should be only called so;

(c) any deposits from which metals are recovered should be only called so;

(d) economic deposits should be called so.

4) Which of the following statement is true?

(a) Mineral deposits are discovered in the Earth’s crust and the mantle.

(b) Mineral deposits have been only found in the continental rocks.

(c) The present technology is not perfect to mine ocean deposits.

(d) Prospectors are going to extract ore from the mantle in future.

B

METALS

Metals are materials most widely used in industry because of their properties. The study of the production and properties of metals is known as metallurgy.

The separation between the atoms in metals is small, so most metals are dense. The atoms are arranged regularly and can slide over each other. That is why metals are malleable (can be deformed and bent without fracture) and ductile (can be drawn into wire). Metals vary greatly in their properties. For example, lead is soft and can be bent by hand, while iron can only be worked by hammering at red heat.

The regular arrangement of atoms in metals gives them crystalline structure. Irregular crystals are called grains. The properties of the metals depend on the size, shape, orientation, and composition of these grains. In general, a metal with small grains will be harder and stronger than one with coarse grains.

Heat treatment such as quenching, tempering, or annealing controls the nature of the grains and their size in the metal. Small amounts of other metals (less than 1 per cent) are often added to a pure metal. This is called alloying and it changes the grain structure and properties of metals.

All metals can be formed by drawing, rolling, hammering and extraction, but some require hot-working. Metals are subject to metal fatigue and to creep (the slow increase in length under stress) causing deformation and failure. Both effects are taken into account by engineers when designing, for example, airplanes, gas-turbines, and pressure vessels for high-temperature chemical processes. Metals can be worked using machine-tools such as lathe, milling machine, shaper and grinder.

The ways of working a metal depend on its properties. Many metals can be melted and cast in moulds, but special conditions are required for metals that react with air.

VOCABULARY

1. metallurgy - металлургия

2. property - свойство

3. separation - разделение, отстояние

4. dense - плотный

5. arrangement - расположение

6. regularly – регулярно, правильно

7. to slide - скользить

8. bent pp of bend - гнуть

9. to fracture - ломать

10. to draw- эластичный

11. wire - проволока

12. grain – зерно

13. to depend of – зависеть

14. size – размер, величина

15. shape – форма, формировать

16. composition - состав

17. coarse – грубый, крупный

18. treatment - обработка

19. quenching - закалка

20. tempering – отпуск после закалки, нормализация

21. annealing – отжиг, отпуск

22. rolling - прокатка

23. to hammer - ковать

24. extruction - экструзия

25. metal fatigue – усталость металла

26. creep - ползучесть

27. stress – давление, напряжение

28. failure – повреждение, разрушение

29. vessel – сосуд, котел, судно

30. lathe – токарный станок

31. milling machine – фрезерный станок

32. shaper – строгальный станок

33. grinder – шлифовальный станок

34. to melt – плавить, плавиться, расплавить

35. to cast – отливать, отлить

36. mould – форма

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Find the following words and word combinations in the text:

1. расстояние между атомами

2. свойства металлов

3. правильное расположение

4. сильно отличаются по своим свойствам

5. кристаллическая структура

6. размер зерен

7. форма зерен

8. закалка

9. отжиг

10. волочение

11. прокатка

12. ковка

13. экструзия

14. структура и свойства зерна

15. горячая обработка

16. усталость металла

17. ползучесть металла

18. плавка и отливка в формы

19. способы обработки металлов

Ex. 2. Complete the following sentences:

1. Metals are …

2. Metallurgy is …

3. Most metals are …

4. The regular arrangement of atoms in metals…

5. Irregular crystals…

6. The properties of the metals depend…

7. Metals with small grains will be…

8. … controls the nature of the grains in the metal.

9. Alloying is …

10. All metals can be formed by …

11. Creep is…

12. Metals can be worked using…

Ex. 3. Explain in English the meaning of the following words:

1. malleability

2. crystalline structure

3. grains

4. heat treatment

5. alloying

6. creep

Ex. 4. Translate into English:

1. Металлы – плотные материалы потому, что между атомами в металлах малое расстояние.

2. Металлы имеют кристаллическую структуру из-за правильного расположения атомов.

3. Чем меньше зерна, тем тверже металл.

4. Закалка и отжиг изменяют форму и размер зерен в металлах.

5. Легирование изменяет структуру и размер зерен металлов.

6. Металл деформируется и разрушается из-за усталости и ползучести.

ORES

About half of the known chemical elements possess some metallic properties. The term metal, however, is reserved for those chemical elements that possess two or more of the characteristic physical properties of metals (opacity, ductility, malleability, fusibility) and are also good conductors of heat and electricity. Approximately 40 metals are made available through the mining and smelting of the minerals in which they occur. Certain kinds of minerals can be smelted more readily than others; these are commonly referred to as ore minerals.

Ore minerals tend to be concentrated in small, localized rock masses that form as a result of special geologic processes, and such local concentrations are called mineral deposits. Mineral deposits are what prospectors seek. The terms ore mineral and mineral deposit were originally applied only to minerals and deposits from which metals are recovered, but present usage includes a few nonmetallic minerals, such as barite and fluorite, that are found in the same kinds of deposit as metallic minerals.

No deposit consists entirely of a single ore mineral. There are always admixtures of valueless minerals, collectively called gangue. The more concentrated an ore mineral, the more valuable the mineral deposit. For every mineral deposit there is a set of conditions, such as the level of concentration and the size of the deposit that must be reached if the deposit is to be worked at a profit. A mineral deposit that is sufficiently rich to be worked at a profit is called an ore deposit, and in an ore deposit the assemblage of ore minerals plus gangue is called the ore.

All ore deposits are mineral deposits, but the reverse is not true. ‘Ore deposit’ is an economic term, while ‘mineral deposit’ is a geologic term. Whether a given mineral deposit is also an ore deposit depends on many factors other than the level of concentration and the size of the deposit; all factors that affect the mining, processing, and transporting of the ore must be considered as well. Among such factors are the shape of a deposit, its depth below the surface, its geographic remoteness, access to transportation, the political stability of the region, and market factors such as the price of the metal in world trade and the cost of borrowing the money needed to develop a mine. Because market factors change continually, a given mineral deposit may sometimes be an ore deposit, but at other times it may be uneconomic and hence not an ore deposit. Mineral deposits have been found both in rocks that lie beneath the oceans and in rocks that form the continents, although the only deposits that actually have been mined are in the continental rocks. The mining of ocean deposits lies in the future. The continental crust averages 35—40 kilometres in thickness, and below the crust the mantle lies. Mineral deposits may occur in the mantle, but with present technology it is not possible to discover them.

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Write down the transcription of the following words and
practice reading them:

Capacity, ductility, malleability, fusibility, magnesium, mercury, zinc, pyrite, hematite, galena, pentlandite, argentite, cassiterite, calamine, sulphide, oxide, carbonate, geologic, usage, barite, fluorite, entirely, gangue, mantle, technology, average, ocean.

Ex. 2. Choose the answer which you think fits best:

1. From the definition of metals given in paragraph 1 we learn that

1. all chemical elements possessing some metallic properties are metals;

2. not all chemical elements possessing metallic properties are metals;

3. the main properties of metals are heat and electric conductivity;

4. metals are chemical elements available through smelting.

2. According to the text, the ore is

1. a concentration of a single mineral;

2. an assemblage of some valuable minerals;

3. an assemblage of valuable and valueless minerals;

4. an assemblage of ore minerals and valueless minerals.

3. According to the text, the data about the ore deposit
suggest that

1. any deposit should be called so;

2. rich deposits should be only called so;

3. any deposits from which metals are recovered should be only called so;

4. economic deposits should be only called so.

4. Which of the following statements is true according to
the text?

1. Mineral deposits are discovered in the Earth's crust and the mantle.

2. Mineral deposits have been only found in the continental rocks.

3. The present technology is not perfect to mine ocean deposits.

(d) Prospectors are going to extract ore from the mantle in future.

Ex. 3. Write out the words with the same root from the text, define their part of speech and translate them into Russian:

Example: ductile (adj) – вязкий, пластичный; ductility (n) – вязкость, пластичность

Malleable (adj), conduct (v), availability (n), mine (v), tendency (n), prospect (v), mixture (n), value (n), profitable (adj), assemble (v), geology (n), remote (adj), use (v), stable (adj), average (adj), thick (adj).

Ex. 4. Find the equivalents of the following words and word-combinations in the text below:

Ore; rocks; present technology; to extract (recover) metals from the ore; to be worked at a profit; valuable; gangue; to be very relative; as the technology is developed; to create the necessary prerequisites for; building materials; the Earth's crust; to be accumulated; deposit; above the average; reserves of available metals; to come to an end (to be exhausted; to run short); to be a source (contributor) of unexhaustible supply of metals; to range from ... to; manganese; to be hundred times as much as; copper; to range up to.

Ex. 5. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the atomic lattice?

2. What types of atomic lattice do metals have?

3. What metals are called allotropic?

4. What is special about allotropic metals?

5. How does heat treatment affect the properties of allotropic metals?

CHAPTER 2. Iron A

IRON AND OTHER METALS

Thousands of miles of railway track form an intricate network of steel over the world, helping to carry daily billions of freight for different industries. Bridges, motorcars, lorries, ships, locomotives, cutlery, and razor blades are but a few of the many products turned out by the steel industry.

But where does all this steel come from? How is it made?

The extraction of iron

Steel is the finished product in an industry which first makes pig iron from iron ores. These ores are abundant, and therefore iron is cheap to produce.

Iron is extracted in a blast-furnace. Iron ore, coke and limestone are fed continuously into the top of the blast-furnace the raw materials fall into the top of the tall cylindrical furnace, which may be over 100 feet high. The outer shell of the furnace is of iron plates riveted together, and inside this casing is a lining of firebrick about eighteen inches thick, which is capable of withstanding high temperatures. The furnace is approximately twenty feet wide at its maximum width, and only eight feet wide at the narrowest part, i.e., at the bottom, where molten iron and slag fall through into a well, from which the two materials are runoff at intervals. About six feet from the base of the furnace, six narrow cylindrical water-cooled devices, called tuyeres, force a blast of air at about 800ºC into the furnace. The hot gases leaving the top of the furnace are used to heat the air passing through the tuyeres.

VOCABULARY

1. iron - железо

2. railway track – железнодорожный путь

3. steel - сталь

4. cutlery – ножевые изделия

5. razor blade – лезвие бритвы

6. turn out – выпускать (изделия)

7. the finished product – конечный продукт

8. pig iron - чугун

9. iron ore – железная руда

10. a blast-furnace – доменная печь

11. coke - кокс

12. limestone - известняк

13. fed continuously - непрерывно подаются

14. raw materials - сырье

15. shell - кожух

16. plate – плита, пласт

17. rivet -клепать

18. casing - кожух

19. a lining - облицовка

20. firebrick - огнеупор

21. the bottom – под (печи)

22. molten iron – (расплавленное) железо

23. slag шлак

24. a well колодец

25. water-cooled - водоохлаждаемый

26. tuyere – фурма

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Answer to the following questions:

1. What is steel?

2. How iron is produced?

3. Describe the blast-furnace.

Ex. 2. Find in the text the English equivalents for the words and word-combinations given below:

Конечный продукт, производить чугун из железной руды; эти руды часто встречаются; тем не менее; железо дешевле; для производства; непрерывно подаются; извлекается из; непрерывно подаются; фурма.

Ex. 3. Complete the following sentence with the words from the text and translate them into Russian.

1. Iron is extracted in a _____.

2. The hot ___ leaving the top of the ____ are used to heat the air passing ____ the tuyeres.

3. Steel is the ______ product in an industry.

4. Thousands of miles of ____ track form an ____ network of steel.

5. The ____ is approximately twenty feet ___ at its ____ width.

Ex. 4. Make up the sentences from the following words and translate them into Russian.

1. Iron / blast-furnace / extracted / in / is / a.

2. The / the / of / of / of / is / outer/ plates / shell / furnace / iron.

3. Is / a / of / inside / this / casing / lining / firebrick.

B

IRON AND IRON ORES

Iron (Fe) is a relatively dense metal with a silvery white appearance and distinctive magnetic properties. It constitutes 5 percent by weight of the Earth's crust, and it is the fourth most abundant element after oxygen, silicon and aluminium. It melts at a temperature of 1538 °C.

Iron is allotropic - that is, it exists in different forms. Its crystal structure is either body-centred cubic (bcc) or face-centred cubic (fee) depending on the temperature. In both crystallographic modifications, the basic configuration is a cube with iron atoms located at the corners. There is an extra atom in the centre of each cube in the bcc modification and in the centre of each face in the fee. At room temperature, pure iron has a bcc structure referred to as alpha-ferrite; this persists until the temperature is raised to 912 °C, when it transforms into a fee arrangement known as austenite. With further heating, austenite remains until the temperature reach­es 1394 °C, the point at which the bcc structure reappears. This form of iron, called delta-ferrite remains until the melting point is reached.

The pure metal is malleable and can be easily shaped by hammering, but apart from specialized electrical applications it is rarely used without adding other elements to improve its properties. Mostly it appears in iron-carbon alloys such as steels, which contain between 0.003 and about 2 percent carbon (the majority lying in the range of 0.01 to 1.2 percent), and cast irons with 2 to 4 percent carbon. Because of their wide range of properties, iron-carbon alloys are widely used in engineering and are the most important of all the industri­al metals.

The most widely distributed iron-bearing minerals are oxides, and iron ores consist mainly of hematite (Fe₂0₃), which is red; magnetite (Fe₃0₄), which is black; limonite (2Fe₂0₃ • 3H₂0), which is brown, and siderite (FeC0₃), which is pale brown. Hematite and magnetite are by far the most common types of ore. Pure magnetite contains 72.4 percent iron, hematite 69.9 percent, limonite 59.8 percent, and siderite 48.2 percent, but, since these minerals never occur alone, the metal content of real ores is lower. Deposits with less than 30 percent iron are commercially unattractive, and, although some ores contain as much as 66 percent iron, there are many in the 50—60 percent range. An ore's quality is also influenced by its other constituents, which are collectively known as gangue.

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Write down the transcription of the following words and practice reading them:

Constitute, weight, ferrite, austenite, malleable, majority, hematite, magnetite, limonite, siderite, gangue.

Ex. 2. Read the text and find a suitable title for each part of the text from the list below:

1. Types of iron ore

2. The main producers of iron ore

3. Pure iron and iron-carbon alloys

4. A definition of iron

5. Crystal structure of iron

Ex. 3. Match the English words and word-combinations with their Russian equivalents:

the Earth's crust body-centred cubic structure face-centred cubic structure crystallographic modification room temperature the melting point apart from in the range of gangue

a) объёмно-центрированная кубическая структура b) земная кора c) гранецентрированная кубическая структура d) обычная температура окружающей среды e) в пределах f) порода g) кристаллографическая модификация h) кроме j)точка плавления

Ex. 4. Answer the following questions:

1. How much iron is there in the Earth's crust?

2. Which is the most abundant element of the Earth's crust?

3. What is the melting temperature of iron?

4. What crystal structure can iron have?

5. What does iron crystal structure depend on?

6. What temperature does pure iron have a body-centred cubic structure at?

7. What is atom arrangement in the face-centred cubic structure?

8. Why is pure iron not widely used in industry?

9. Which iron-carbon alloy is mostly used?

1. How much carbon can steel contain?

2. How much carbon can cast iron contain?

3. What are the most common types of iron ore?

4. How much iron does pure magnetite contain?

5. Which deposits are considered commercially unattrac­tive?

6. What is gangue?

7. Which countries are the major importers?
   
   

CHAPTER 3. Metals and Steel

A

FERROUS METALS AND STEELS

Ferrous metals consist of iron combined with carbon, silicon and other elements. But carbon is the most important element in ferrous alloys.

Ferrous metals are used in industry in two forms: steel and cast iron? Which differ in the quantity of carbon content?

Alloys consist of a simple metal combined with some other element.

Steel is a ferrous material having some carbon content. There are two kinds of steel: carbon steel and alloy steels.

Carbon steel should contain only iron and carbon without any other alloying element.

Alloy steels are those in which in addition to carbon an alloying element is present. These alloying elements have an effect on the properties of steel. They increase its strength and hardness, for example, high percentage of chromium makes steel rust-resistant, and we call it ‘stainless steel’.

Strength, ductility and machinability are the most important industrial and commercial properties of steel. Such prosperities as resistance to wear, electrical conductivity, magnetic properties are important in special uses of metals.

According to their chemical and mechanical properties steel may be used in different branches of industry, for example, in machine building, rocket engineering, automobile industry, ect.

VOCABULARY

1. ferrous metals – черные металлы

2. cast iron – чугун

3. carbon content – содержание углерода

4. alloy steel – легированная сталь

5. carbon steel – углеродистая сталь

6. strength – жесткость

7. hardness – прочность

8. ductility – ковкость

9. machinability – обрабатываемость (на станке)

10. resistance to wear – износостойкость

11. conductivity – проводимость

12. iron – железо

13. silicon – кремний

14. alloy – сплав

15. rust-resistant – нержавеющий

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Answer to the following questions:

1. What elements do ferrous metals consist of?

2. What is carbon steel?

3. What are alloy steels?

4. What are the most important properties of steel?

5. In what branches of industry are steels used?

Ex. 2. Translate into Russian the following international words:

Metal, element, industry, steel, material, industrial, electronic, magnetic, type, chemical, mechanical, rocket, automobile.

B

STEEL

The most important metal in industry is iron and its alloy – steel. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It is strong and stiff, but corrodes easily through rusting, although stainless and other special steels resist corrosion. The amount of carbon in steel influences its properties considerably. Steels of low carbon content (mild steels) are quite ductile and are used in the manufacture of sheet iron, wire, and pipes. Medium-carbon steels containing from 0.2 to 0.4 per cent carbon are tougher and stronger and are used as structural steels. Both mild and medium-carbon steels are suitable for forging and welding. High-carbon steels contain from 0.4 to 1.5 per cent carbon, are hard and brittle and are used in cutting tools, surgical instruments, razor blades and springs. Tool steel, also called silver steel, contains about 1 per cent carbon and is strengthened and toughened by quenching and tempering.

The inclusion of other elements affects the properties of the steel. Manganese gives extra strength and toughness. Steel containing 4 per cent silicon is used for transformer cores or electromagnets because it has large grains acting like small magnets. The addition of chromium gives extra strength and corrosion resistance, so we can get rust-proof steels. Heating in the presence of carbon or nitrogen-rich materials is used to form a hard surface on steel (case-hardening). High-speed steels, which are extremely important in machine-tools, contain chromium and tungsten plus smaller amounts of vanadium, molybdenum and other metals.

VOCABULARY

1. alloy – сплав

2. carbon – углерод

3. stiff – жесткий

4. corrode – разъедать, ржаветь

5. rusty – ржавый

6. stainless – нержавеющий

7. resist – сопротивляться

8. considerably – значительно, гораздо

9. tough – крепкий, жесткий, прочный, выносливый

10. forging – ковка

11. welding – сварка

12. brittle – хрупкий, ломкий

13. cutting tools – режущие инструменты

14. surgical instruments – хирургические инструменты

15. blade – лезвие

16. spring – пружина

17. inclusion – включение

18. affect – влиять

19. manganese – марганец

20. silicon – кремний

21. rust-proof – нержавеющий

22. nitrogen – азот

23. tungsten - вольфрам

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Answer to the following questions:

1. What is steel?

2. What are the main properties of steel?

3. What are the drawbacks of steel?

4. What kind of steel do you know? Where are they used?

5. What gives the addition of manganese, silicon and chromium to steel?

6. What can be made of mild steels (medium-carbon steels, high-carbon steels)?

7. What kind of steels can be forged and welded?

8. How can we get rust-proof (stainless) steel?

9. What is used to form a hard surface on steel?

10. What are high-speed steels alloy with?

Ex. 2. Find the following words and word combinations in the text:

1. сплав железа и углерода

2. прочный и жесткий

3. легко коррозирует

4. нержавеющая сталь

5. низкое содержание углерода

6. ковкость

7. листовое железо, проволока, трубы

8. конструкционные стали

9. пригодные для ковки и сварки

10. твердый и хрупкий

11. режущие инструменты

12. инструментальная сталь

13. упрочнять

14. добавление марганца (кремния, хрома, вольфрама, молибдена, ванадия)

CHAPTER 4. Non-ferrous metals A

NON-FERROUS METALS

Zinc, copper and lead sulphides, aluminium and tin oxides, magnesium, carbonate and chloride are the naturally occurring minerals from which these metals are extracted.

To extract the minerals from their ores: the earthy matter is the first washed away, sulphides are roasted in a current of air to covert them to oxides:

2 Zn S + 3 O₂ 2 Zn O + 2 O₂

2 Pb S + 3 O₂ 2 Pb O + 2 S O₂

The oxides are reduced to metal by heating them with coke in a furnace. Zinc, lead and tin are obtained in this way:

Zn O + C = Zn + CO,

Pb + C = Pb + CO,

Sn O₂ 2 C = Sn + 2 CO.

The very reactive metals which are placed above zinc in the electrochemical series have such an affinity for oxygen that carbon cannot reduce their oxides to metal. These metals are extracted by electrolysis of one of their compounds in the molten state, e.g. potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorides, and aluminium oxide.

VOCABULARY

1. zinc – цинк

2. copper – медь

3. lead – свинец

4. sulphides – сульфиды

5. aluminium – алюминий

6. tin – олово

7. magnesium – магний

8. carbonate – карбонат

9. naturally occurring minerals – ископаемые минералы

10. ore – руда

11. oxide – оксид

12. the earthy matter – земляное покрытие

13. to reduce – восстанавливать

14. sulphides are roasted – сульфиды обжигаются

15. electrochemical series – электрохимический ряд

16. affinity – сродство

17. oxygen – кислород

18. carbon – углерод

19. electrolysis- электролиз

20. molted state – жидкое (растопленное) состояние

21. potassium – калий

22. sodium – сода

23. calcium – кальций

24. chloride – хлор

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Answer the following questions:

1. What non-ferrous metals are called naturally occurring minerals?

2. What is the process of extracting the metals from their ores?

3. Where the oxides are reduced to metals?

Ex. 2. Open the () and translate the words into English. Translate the whole sentence into Russian.

1. (Цинк), (медь) and (сульфиды свинца), (алюминий) and (олово) oxides, magnesium, carbonate (хлорид) are the (ископаемые минералы) from which these metals are extracted.

2. To extract the minerals from their ores: (земляное покрытие) is the first washed away, (сульфиды обжигаются) in a current of air to covert them to oxides.

3. The oxides (восстанавливаются) to metal by heating them with coke in a furnace.

4. (Цинк), (медь) and (олово) are obtained in this way.

5. The very reactive metals which are placed above (цинк) in the (электрохимический ряд) have such an (сродство) for oxygen that carbon cannot reduce their oxides to metal.

6. These metals are extracted by (электролиз) of one of their compounds in the (жидком состоянии), e.g. (калий), (сода), (кальций) and magnesium (хлор), and aluminium oxide.

THE HISTORY OF ALUMINIUM’S DISCOVERY

Aluminium is a lightweight, silvery-white metal. It is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth’s crust and the most widely used nonferrous metal. Aluminium never occurs in the metallic form in nature, but its compounds are present rocks, vegetation, and animals.

Aluminium was isolated early in the 19^th century. Sir Humphrey Davy in 1808 gave it the name “aluminum” (in American English this term is in use today). In 1809 Davy could get aluminium in its free metallic state.

In 1825 Hans Christian Oersted produced a tiny sample of aluminium in the laboratory by chemical means.

Twenty years later Frederick Wohler produces aluminium lumps as big as pinheads. In 1854 Sainte-Clair Deville produced aluminium globules.

He was encouraged by Napoleon III and at Paris exhibition in 1855 aluminium bars were exhibited next to the crown jewels.

On February 23, 1886, Charles Martin Hall worked out the basis electrolytic process still in use today. He separated aluminum from the oxygen with which it is chemically combined in nature by passing an electric current through a solution of cryolite and alumina.

Almost simultaneously other scientists found out this way of isolation of aluminium from aluminium oxide (alumina).

VOCABULARY

1. lightweight - легкий

2. silvery-white - светло-серый

3. abundant – обильный, богатый

4. metallic - металлический

5. crust - кора

6. nonferrous metal – цветной металл

7. to occur - встречаться

8. in nature – в природе

9. a rock - скала

10. free metallic state – свободное металлическое состояние

11. a mean - способ

12. a pinhead – булавочная головка

13. to produce - производить

14. to encourage - поддерживать

15. exhibition – выставка

16. a bar – полоса (железа)

17. next to – по соседству

18. the crown jewels – драгоценности из королевской казны

19. to work out - разрабатывать

20. the basis electrolytic process – основной электролитический процесс

21. to be in use – применяться

22. to separate - отделать

23. oxygen - кислород

24. an electric current – электрическая цепь

25. a solution - раствор

26. simultaneously - одновременно

27. a scientist – ученый

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Read and translate the following words.

Alumina, aluminium, crown, cryolite, encourage, exhibit, globe, isolate, jewel, tiny, vegetation

Ex. 2. Find in the text the words with the same root and translate them into Russian.

Example: chemistry (химия), chemist (химик), chemical (химический)

Abundance, metal, wide, use, ferrous, isolation, encouragement, exhibit.

Ex. 3. Find in the text the English equivalents for the words and word-combinations given below:

Самый распространенный элемент; земная кора; широко используемый; встречаться в природе; химическим способом; размером с булавочную головку; его поддержал; выставляться в качестве экспоната; драгоценности из королевской казны; разработать (создать) электролитический процесс; который все еще применяется сегодня; пропустить ток через раствор; почти одновременно.

Ex. 4. Complete the following sentence with the words from the text and translate them into Russian.

1. Aluminium is the most _____ metallic element in the Earth’s ______.

2. Aluminium never ____ in the metallic form in nature.

3. Aluminium ____ early in the 19^th century.

4. In 1825 Hans Christian Oersted produced a ____ sample of aluminium in the laboratory by ____.

5. In 1854 Saint-Clair Deville produced aluminium ____.

6. In 1886 Charles Hall ____ the basis electrolytic process still ___ today.

7. Hall separated aluminum from the oxygen with which it is chemically ____ in nature by passing a ____.

Ex. 5. Make up the sentences from the following words and translate them into Russian.

1. Aluminium / for / known / compounds / many / were / century / was / isolated / the metal / before.

2. Conductor / is / electricity / and / aluminium / an / of / excellent / heat.

3. Wohler / lumps / years / produced / later as /as /aluminium / big pinheads.

4. Worked out / electrolytic / process / the / Hall / twenty-two / when / was / he.

BAUXITE

Bauxite is the most important aluminium ore. It is an iron-containing of about 52 per cent aluminium oxide. Bauxite was discovered in 1821 near Les Baux in southern France. The material was later named bauxite. Bauxite is best defined as an aluminium ore of varying purity. Aluminium in bauxite is in form of aluminium hydroxide or aluminium oxide.

Bauxite varies greatly in physical appearance, depending on its composition and impurities. It may be yellowish white to gray or from pink to dark red or brown in colour. It may be earthy, or it may range in form from clay to rock. Bauxite has been found in all the world’s continents except Antarctica.

Not all bauxite ores are economical for aluminium production. Only earth with an aluminium oxide content of 30 per cent or more is considered practical. Only those ores containing the minerals gibbsite (65 per cent) and boehmite (85 per cent) alumina are generally considered economical to be processed.

Known deposits of bauxite can supply the world with aluminium for hundreds of years at present production levels. When high-grade bauxite deposits are depleted, substantial reserves of secondary ores will be exploited. Other nonbauxite sources of alumina are also available: alumina clays, dawsonite, aluminous shales, igneous rocks, and saprolite and sillimanite minerals. In Russia, alumina is refined from nonbauxitic ores – namely nepheline, syenite and alunite.

VOCABULARY:

1. bauxite – боксит, алюминиевая руда

2. purity - чистота

3. hydroxide - гидроксид

4. yellowish - желтоватый

5. earthy – земляной

6. high-grade - высокосодержащий

7. а deposit - месторождение

8. to be depleted - истощать

9. substantial reserves – существенные запасы

10. be exploited - разрабатывать

11. clay - глина

12. rock - скала

13. gibbsite – гиббсит (AlH₂O₃ )

14. boehmite - бёрмит

15. alumina – окись алюминия; глинозем

16. dawsonite – даусонит

17. aluminous shales - глиноземистый

18. igneous rock – вулканическая порода

19. saprolite – сапролит

20. sillimanite mineral – силлиманитный минерал

21. nepheline – нефелит

22. syenite – сиенит

23. alunite – алунит, квасцовый камень

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Find in the text the words with the same root and translate them into Russian.

Example: chemistry (химия), chemist (химик), chemical (химический)

Discovery (n), south (n), name (n), definition (n), pure (adj), yellow (adj), grayish (adj), economy (n), produce (v).

Ex. 2. Find in the text the English equivalents for the words and word-combinations given below:

Отличаться внешне; в зависимости от состава и примесей; экономически выгодный для производства; при нынешнем уровне производства; уже известные месторождения; истощать (запасы); существенные запасы менее богатых руд; разрабатывать (запасы).

Ex. 3. Read the text and agree or disagree with the statements given below:

1. The most important aluminium ore was named bauxite in 1821.

2. Aluminium ores range in colour depending on oxygen containing impurities.

3. Boehmite containing 85 per cent alumina.

4. Russian deposits of bauxite can supply the world with aluminium for hundreds of years.

5. There are substantial reserves of secondary ores which still remain exploited.

Ex. 4. Answer the following questions:

1. When was bauxite discovered?

2. Why was bauxite given such a name?

3. How much aluminium oxide does bauxite contain?

4. What does the bauxite colour depend on?

5. What bauxites are considered economical for aluminium production?

Ex. 5. Complete the following sentence with the words from the text and translate them into Russian.

1. The most ______ aluminium ore is bauxite.

2. It was _______ in 1821.

3. Bauxite varies greatly in ________ appearance.

4. Bauxite has been found in all continents _______ Antarctica.

5. Known deposits of bauxite can ______ the world ___ aluminium for hundreds of years at present production ____.

6. When high-grade bauxite deposits are _______, substantial _______ of secondary ores will be exploited.

7. Other nonbauxite sources of alumina are also _______.

B

ALUMINIUM AND THE HISTORY OF ITS DISCOVERY

Aluminium is a chemical element (Al), a lightweight, silvery-white metal of main Group III a (boron group) of the Periodic table. Aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust and the most widely used non-ferrous metal. Because of its chemical activity, aluminium never occurs in the metallic form in nature, but its compounds are present to a greater or lesser extent in almost all rocks, vegetation, and animals. Aluminium compounds were known and used for many centuries before the metal was isolated.

In historical terms aluminium is a relatively new metal which was isolated early in the 19th century. In 1782 the great French chemist, Lavoisier, said it was the oxide of an unknown metal. This opinion was repeated by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1808, and he gave it the name "aluminum". His spelling is still used in North America but elsewhere in the world the spelling "aluminium", following the suggestion of Henry Sainte-Clair Deville, is used. In 1809 Davy fused iron in contact with alumina in an electric arc to produce an iron aluminium alloy; for a split instant, before it joined the iron, aluminium existed in its free metallic state for perhaps the first time since the world was formed.

In 1825 Hans Christian Oersted, a Dane, produced a tiny sample of aluminium in the laboratory by chemical means.

Twenty years later the German scientist, Frederick Wohler, produced aluminium lumps as big as pinheads. In 1854 Sainte-Clair Deville had made improvements in Wohler's method and produced aluminium globules.

He was encouraged by Napoleon III to produce aluminium commercially and at the Paris exhibition in 1855 aluminium bars were exhibited next to the crown jewels. It was not until 31 years later, however, that an economical way of commercial production was discovered.

On February 23, 1886, a 22-year-old American, Charles Martin Hall, worked out the basic electrolytic process still in use today. Hall had begun his experiments while still a student at Oberlin College, Ohio.

He achieved his success, after graduation, with homemade apparatus in the family wood shed. He separated aluminium from the oxygen with which it is chemically combined in nature by passing an electric current through a solution of cryolite and alumina.

Almost simultaneously, Paul Louis Toussant Heroult arrived at the same process in France. However, he did not at first recognise its importance. He worked along another line in the development of aluminium alloys. In 1888 the German chemist, Karl Joseph Bayer, was issued a German patent for an improved process for making Bayer aluminium oxide (alu­mina). With that the foundation of the aluminium age was complete.

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Write down the transcription of the following words and
practise reading them:

Alumina, aluminum, apparatus, chemist, crown, cryolite, encourage, exhibit, fuse, globule, graduation, isolate, issue, jewel, sample, tiny, vegetation.

Ex. 2. Write out the words with the same root from the text,
define their part of speech and translate them into Russian:

Example: chemistry (n) - химия, chemist (n) – химик, chemical (adj) – химический

Abundance (n), metal (n), period (n), wide (adj), use (v), ferrous (adj), active (adj), occurrence (n), presence (n), isolation (n), history (n), relative (adj), known (pp), spell (v), suggest (v), fuse (n), production (n), existence (n), important (adj), science (n), improve (v), encouragement (n), exhibit (v), alloy (v), improvement (n), discoverer (n), successful (adj), graduate (v), develop (v), found (v), complete (v), issuance (n).

Ex. 3. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-
combinations given below:

По историческим меркам; самый распространенный элемент; земная кора; широко используемый; из-за; встречаться в природе; в большей или меньшей степени; относительно новый; возможно впервые; химическим способом; размером с булавочную головку; его поддержал; выставлять в качестве экспоната; драгоценности из королевской казны; разработать (создать) электролитический процесс; который все еще применяется сегодня; будучи студентом; достичь успеха; самодельный прибор; пропустить ток через раствор; почти одновременно; выдавать патент на что-либо.

Ex. 4. Here are the answers to some questions about the text.
Work out the questions:

Example: Boron group. What group does aluminium belong to?

1. Because of its chemical activity.

2. For many centuries.

3. Early in the 19th century.

4. Hans Christian Oersted.

5. Aluminium lumps as big as pinheads.

6. Napoleon III.

7. At the Paris exhibition.

8. Karl Bayer.

Ex. 5. Complete the following sentences with the words from the text:

1. Aluminium is the most metallic element in the

Earth's .

2. Because of its chemical activity, aluminium never

in the metallic form in nature.

1. In historical terms aluminium is a relatively new met­al which early in the 19th century.

2. In 1825 Hans Christian Oersted produced a sam­ple of aluminium in the laboratory by .

3. In 1854 Deville had made in Wohler's method

and produced aluminium globules.

1. In 1886 Charles Hall the basic electrolytic pro­cess still today.

2. Hall separated aluminium from the oxygen with which it is chemically in nature by passing an .

Ex. 6. Rearrange the words to form complete sentences:

1. Aluminium /for / known / compounds / many / were / centuries / was / isolated / the metal / before.

2. Conductor / is / electricity / and / aluminium / an / of / excellent / heat.

3. Davy / in / in / in / alloy / with / 1809 / iron / aluminium / fused / iron/ contact / alumina / an / arc / to / electric / produce / an.

1. Wohler / lumps / years / produced / later / twenty / as / as / aluminium/ big / pinheads.

2. Worked out / electrolytic / process / the / Hall / twenty-two / when / was / he.

BAUXITE

The most important aluminium ore, an iron-containing rock consisting of about 52 per cent aluminium oxide, was discovered in 1821 near Les Baux in southern France. The material was later named bauxite. Bauxite is best defined as an aluminium ore of varying degrees of purity in which aluminium in the form of aluminium hydroxide or aluminium oxide is the largest single constituent. The impurities are largely iron oxide, silica, and titania.

Bauxite varies greatly in physical appearance, depending on its composition and impurities. It ranges in colour from yellowish white to gray or from pink to dark red or brown if high in iron oxides. It may be earthy, or it may range in form from clay to rock. Bauxite has been found in all the world's continents except Antarctica. The richest deposits generally lie in areas that during formation were in tropical and subtropical climates, providing optimal conditions of heavy rainfall, constant warm temperatures, and good drainage.

Large deposits are found in the Caribbean islands, northern South America, Australia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, western Africa, Greece, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Italy, Hungary, and France.

Not all bauxite ores are economical for aluminium production. Only earth with an aluminium oxide content of 30 per cent or more is considered practical. Only those ores containing significant concentrations of the minerals gibbsite and boehmite, which contain 65 and 85 per cent alumina, respectively, are generally considered economical to be processed.

Gibbsite is found largely in tropical areas on either side of the Equator, while boehmite is found largely north of the subtropical belt in Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkey, China, and Greece.

Known deposits of bauxite can supply the world with aluminium for hundreds of years at present production levels. When high-grade bauxite deposits are depleted, substantial reserves of secondary ores will remain to be exploited: laterite deposits in the northwestern United States and Australia, anorthosite in the western United States, apatite and alunite in Europe, kaolinite in the southeasten United States. Other nonbauxite sources of alumina are also available: alumina clays, dawsonite, aluminous shales, igneous rocks, and saprolite and sillimanite minerals. In Russia, alumina is re­fined from nonbauxitic ores — namely nepheline, syenite and alunite.

By far the greatest quantity of commercially exploited bauxite lies at or near the Earth's surface. It is mined in open pits and transported by truck, rail, or conveyor belt to a processing plant. Approximately 90 percent of all bauxite mined is refined into alumina, which is ultimately smelted into aluminium. The remaining 10 percent is used in other applications, such as abrasives, refractories, etc. Approxi­mately four tons of high-grade bauxite yield two tons of alumina, from which one ton of aluminium is produced.

VOCABULARY:

1. alumina - окись алюминия; глинозем

2. aluminous – глиноземистый

3. alunite - алунит, квасцовый камень

4. anorthosite – анортозит

5. apatite – апатит

6. bauxite - боксит, алюминиевая руда

7. boehmite – бёмит

8. Bosnia and Herzegovina - Босния и Герцеговина

9. the Caribbean islands - Карибские острова

10. Croatia – Хорватия

11. dawsonite - даусонит

12. deplete - истощать, исчерпывать

13. drainage - дренаж

14. gibbsite - гиббсит

15. igneous rock - вулканическая порода

16. Indonesia – Индонезия

17. kaolinite – каолинит

18. Kazak(h)stan – Казахстан

19. laterite – латерит

20. Malaysia – Малайзия

21. Montenegro – Черногория

22. nepheline - нефелин

23. saprolite – сапролит

24. sillimanite - силлиманит

25. syenite - сиенит

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Write down the transcription of the following words and practise reading them:

Climate, consequently, discover, generally, heavy, postpone, process, shovel, since, site, southern, vary.

Ex. 2. Write out the words with the same root from the text, define their part of speech and translate them into Russian:

Example: abundance (n) - изобилие, богатство; abundant (adj) - обильный, богатый

Discovery (n), south (n), name (n), definition (n), pure (adj), compose (v), yellow (adj), grayish (adj), constantly (adv), north (n), west (n), economy (n), produce (v), significance (n), processing (n), exploitation (n), refining (n), develop (v), interesting (adj), commercial (adj), apply (v), recover (v), availability (n), mine (n).

Ex. 3. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-
combinations given below:

Отличаться внешне; в зависимости от состава и примесей; на всех континентах; располагаться на территориях; обильные дожди; экономически выгодный для производства; при нынешнем уровне производства; (уже) известные месторождения; истощать (запасы); существенные запасы менее богатых руд; разрабатывать (запасы), добывать (руду); промышленно добываемые бокситы; в верхних пластах, у поверхности Земли; добывать (руду) открытым способом.

Ex. 4. Read the text and agree or disagree with the statements
given below:

1. The most important aluminium ore was named bauxite in 1821.

2. Aluminium ores range in colour depending on iron containing impurities.

3. Boehmite containing 85 percent alumina is found largely in the subtropical belt in Russia.

4. Russian deposits of bauxite can supply the world with aluminium for hundreds of years.

5. There are substantial reserves of secondary aluminium ores which still remain to be exploited.

Ex. 5. Answer the following questions:

1. When was bauxite discovered?

2. Why was bauxite given such a name?

3. How much aluminium oxide does bauxite contain?

4. What does the bauxite colour depend on?

1. What conditions are considered good for bauxite formation?

2. Where have large bauxite deposits been found?

3. What bauxites are considered economical for aluminium production?

4. Where is aluminium ore crushed?

5. Where are refining plants located?

6. What are the reserves of aluminium in nature?

Ex. 6. Complete the following sentences with the words from the text:

1. The most aluminium ore is bauxite.

2. It was in 1821.

3. Bauxite is from the district of Les Baux, in the south of France.

4. Bauxite consists of aluminium combined with water and containing _____ in the form of silica and oxides of iron and titanium.

1. The iron oxide gives bauxite a red _____.

2. Bauxite has been found in all the continent ___Antarctica.

1. Bauxite deposits generally lie near the .

2. Most are located near the Equator in areas with hot sun and rain.

9. Known deposits of bauxite can ____the world ___aluminium for hundreds of years at present produc­tion .

10. When high-grade deposits are___, substantial ___of secondary ores will remain to be exploited.

11. Other nonbauxite sources of alumina are also___.

12. In Russia, alumina is from nonbauxitic ores namely nepheline, syenite and alunite.

Ex. 7. Summarize the text.

CHAPTER 5. Copper A

COPPER

Pure copper is a salmon-pink, rather soft, very malleable and ductile metal. Upon exposure to air, copper acquires a brown coating of oxide and sulphides, this, however, protects it from further corrosion. To prevent the loss of the shiny appearance of copper and brass these metals are sometimes lacquered, i.e. coated with a transparent coating of shellac. The so-called “oxidized copper” is really copper coated with copper sulphides made by immersing the metal in a solution of ammonium polysulphide.

Uses of copper.

It is a good conductor and it is surpassed only by silver for conductivity of electricity and the making of electrical apparatus is the chief use for copper, e.g. telephone and telegraph cables; electric wiring; parts of dynamos and electric motors. Three important copper alloys are brass, bronze, and cupro-nickel (75% copper + 25 % nickel) which is used for the present “silver” coins.

Copper oxide is a black, hygroscopic basic oxide. It may be made by heating copper nitrate, carbonate or hydroxide. It is reduced to a pink residue of copper by being heated in hydrogen, carbon monoxide or ammonia. It is used in the manufacture of blue glass.

Copper sulphate, blue vitriol, CuSO₄ × 5H₂O, is used in the laboratory for detecting the presence of water; it is used in horticulture for killing fungi. For this purpose, Bordeaux mixture, a spray made by dissolving equal weights of copper sulphate and quicklime in water, is used.

Copper nitrate is readily prepared by dissolving copper in nitric acid. It offers a means of preparing those copper compounds (copper oxide, sulphate and chloride) which are not capable of being directly prepared from copper.

VOCABULARY

1. ductile – пластичный

2. Upon exposure to air – на воздухе

3. to lacquer – лакировать

4. shellac – шеллак

5. ammonium polysulphide – полисульфид аммония

6. cupro-nickel – мельхиор

7. hygroscopic – гигроскопический

8. residue – осадок

9. ammonia (мн. ч. от ammonium) – аммоний

10. to detect – обнаруживать

11. for killing fungi – для уничтожения плесени

12. to dissolve – растворять

13. quicklime – гашенная известь

EXERCISE

Ex. 1. Put the following sentences in right order.

1. Copper sulphate is used in the laboratory for detecting the presence of water.

2. It is a good conductor and the making of electrical apparatus is the chief use for copper.

3. Description of pure copper.

4. Copper nitrate is readily prepared by dissolving copper in nitric acid.

5. Copper sulphate is used in horticulture for killing fungi.

6. To prevent the loss of the shiny appearance of copper and brass these metals are sometimes lacquered.

Ex. 2 . Answer to the following questions:

1. How does copper nitrate is prepared?

2. What is the colour of copper oxide?

3. Why copper oxide has black colour?

4. What is used for killing fungi?

5. What is the coating material for copper?

6. When is copper oxide reduced to pink?

7. What mixture is used for killing fungi?

8. What is the colour of pure copper?

9. What are important copper alloys?

10. Where is copper monoxide used?

Ex. 3. Replace the words in () by English equivalents.

1. (На воздухе) copper acquires a brown coating.

2. There are three important copper alloys – brass, bronze, and (мельхиор).

3. Copper sulphate is used in the laboratory for (обнаруживать) the presence of water; it is used in horticulture (уничтожения плесени).

4. To prevent the loss of the shiny appearance of copper and brass these metals are sometimes (лакировать).

5. They are coated with a transparent coating of (шеллак).

6. Copper oxide is reduced to a pink (осадок) of copper by being heated in hydrogen, carbon monoxide or (аммоний).

7. Copper oxide is a black, (гигроскопический) basic oxide.

8. Bordeaux mixture, a spray made by (растворять) equal weights of copper sulphate and (гашенная известь) in water, is used.

B

OCCURENCE, USES AND PROPERTIES OF COPPER

Copper, nickel, lead, zinc and tin belong to common metals.

Copper, chemical element, reddish, extremely ductile metal, unusually good conductor of electricity and heat, has a melting point 1084.5 °C, density (t = 18 °C) 8.96 g/cm³. The symbol for copper is Cu and comes from the Latin cuprum meaning from the island of Cyprus. It was known as Cyprium "metal of Cyprus". Copper is found in the free metallic state in nature; this native copper was first used (8000 ВС) as a substitute for stone by Neolithic man. Later (4000 ВС) copper was reduced to metal from ores with fire and was intentionally alloyed with tin as bronze (3500 ВС).

Copper compounds are all diamagnetic and, with few exceptions, colourless. Among the important industrial compounds of copper are cuprous oxide (Cu₂0), cuprous chloride (Cu₂Cl₂) and cuprous sulfide (Cu₂S). Cuprous oxide is a red or reddish brown crystal or powder that occurs in nature as a mineral cuprite. It is produced on a large scale by reduction of mixed copper oxide ores with copper metal or by electrolysis of an aqueous solution of sodium chloride using copper electrodes. The pure compound is insoluble in water but soluble in hydrochloric acid or ammonia. Cuprous oxide is used principally as a red pigment for antifouling paints, glasses, porcelain glazes, and ceramics. Cuprous chloride is whitish or grayish solid that occurs as the mineral nantokite. It is usually prepared by reduction of copper chloride with metallic copper. The pure compound is stable in dry air; moist air converts it to a greenish oxygenated compound. Cuprous chloride is used as a catalyst in a number of organic reactions and as a condensing agent for soaps, fats, and oils.

Cuprous sulfide occurs in the form of black powder or lumps and is found as the mineral chalcocite. Large quantities of the compound are obtained by heating cupric sulfide in a stream of hydrogen. It is insoluble in water but soluble in ammonium hydroxide and nitric acid. Its application includes use in solar cells, electrodes, etc.

Native copper is found at many locations as a primary mineral in basaltic lavas and also as reduced from copper compounds. Copper occurs combined in many minerals, such as chalcocite, chalcopyrite, cuprity, malachite.

Copper is commercially produced mainly by smelting or leaching, usually followed by electrolytic refining or recovery.

The major portion of copper produced in the world is used by the electrical industries; most of the remainder is combined with other metals to form alloys. Important series of alloys in which copper is the chief constituent are brasses (copper and zinc), bronzes (copper and tin), and nickel silvers (copper, zinc, and nickel, no silver). There are many useful alloys of copper and nickel; the two metals are completely miscible. Copper also forms an important series of alloys with aluminium, called aluminium bronzes. Beryllium copper is an unusual copper alloy in that it can be hardened by heat treatment. Copper is a part of nearly all coinage metals.

In non-ferrous metallurgy some semi-products, for example, matte are used. Copper ore is smelt to produce matte, cuprous sulfide and iron sulfide alloy, which may be converted by electrolytic refining to obtain blister copper.

The primary purpose of matte smelting is to melt and reconibine the charge into a homogeneous matte of metallic copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron sulfides and to give an iron and silicon oxides slag.

Shaft furnaces, reverberatory furnaces and electric furnaces are used to smelt copper matte and to obtain copper.

The shaft furnace has some advantages over the reverberatory furnace:

1. It has a higher specific productivity 100—150 t/m² per day instead of 7—10 t/m² per day in the reverberatory furnace.

2. Thanks to intensive cooling of furnaces expensive re­fractory materials are reduced.

3. Even furnaces with a low capacity are profitable.

Electric furnaces are used when electric power is cheap. But the most outlooking method is autogenous smelting.

Copper is one of the most ductile metals, not especially strong or hard. Strength and hardness are appreciably increased by cold-working because of the formation of elongated crystals of the same face-centred cubic structure that is present in the softer annealing copper. Common gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and sulphur dioxide are soluble in molten copper and greatly affect the mechanical and electrical properties of the solidified metal.

VOCABULARY:

1. basaltic – базальтовый

2. chalcocite – халькозин

3. chalcopyrite – халкопирит

4. chloride - хлорид; хлористый

5. cuprite - куприт, красная медная руда

6. lava - лава

7. malachite – малахит

8. nantokite – нантокит

9. sulfide - сульфид, сернистое соединение

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Write down the transcription of the following words and
practise reading them:

Ductile, island, extremely, compound, oxide, reduction, cuprous chloride, convert, hydrogen, commercially, leaching.

Ex. 2. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-
combinations given below. Use them in the sentences of
your own:

Красноватый, чрезвычайно мягкий (ковкий) металл; самородная медь; встречается в природе; нерастворимый в воде; отражательная печь; не особенно прочный и твердый металл; механические и электрические свойства.

Ex. 3. Match the English words and word-combinations given
below with their Russian equivalents:

1.	aqueous solution	1.	штейн
2.	reduction	2.	водный раствор
3.	matte	3.	восстановление
4.	alloy	4.	большое количество
5.	large quantity	5.	сплавлять, легировать
6.	combined	6.	точка плавления
7.	melting point	7.	связанный
8.	smelting	8.	порошок
9.	leaching	9.	плавление
10.	powder	10.	выщелачивание

Ex. 4. Complete the following sentences with the words from the text:

1. Copper are all diamagnetic and colourless.

2. Cuprous oxide is a red or crystal or powder.

3. copper is found at many locations as a primary mineral in basaltic lavas.

1. Cuprous sulfide occurs in the form of .

2. Copper forms with aluminium.

6. is a semi-product.

7.The shaft furnace has some advantages over the furnace.

1. Electric are used when electric power is cheap.

2. Copper is one of the most metals.

10. The primary purpose of matte smelting is to the charge into a homogeneous matte of metallic copper, nickel, cobalt and iron sulfides.

Ex. 5. Read the text and agree or disagree with the statements given below:

1. Copper, chemical element, red, not ductile metal, has a , melting point 1084.5°C, density (t = 18°C) 8.96 g/cm³.

2. Cuprous oxide is used principally as a green pigment.

3. Copper ore is smelt to⁸ produce matte, cuprous sulfide and iron sulfide alloy, which may be converted into blister copper.

Ex. 6. Connect the two matching parts of the sentences:

1. Copper	are completely miscible.
2. Cuprous oxide	is a part of nearly all coinage metals.
3. Copper and nickel	is used as a red pigment.

Ex. 7. Ask questions according to the following requests:

1. Ask one of the students what he knows about native copper.

2. Ask one of the students what melting point and density copper has.

3. Ask one of the students what he can say about the semi-product "matte".

4. Ask one of the students what furnaces are used to smelt copper matte and to obtain copper.

5. Ask one of the students what he can say about strength and hardness of copper.

6. Ask one of the students in what form cuprous sulfide occurs.

CHAPTER 6. Nickel A

NICKEL

Although it is best known for its use in coinage, nickel (Ni) has become much more important for its many industrial applications, which owe their importance to unique combination of properties. Nickel has a relatively high melting point of 1455 °C and a face-centered cubic crystal structure, which gives the metal good ductility. Nickel alloys exhibit a high resistance to corrosion in a wide variety of media and have the ability to withstand a range of high and low temperatures. In stainless steels, nickel improves the stability of the protective oxide film that provides corrosion resistance. Modern technology is heavily dependent on these materials, which form a vital part of the chemical, petrochemical, and related industries.

Nickel was used industrially as an alloying metal almost 2000 years before it was isolated and recognized as a new element. As early as 200 ВС, the Chinese made substantial amounts of a white alloy from zinc and a copper-nickel ore found in China. The alloy was exported to the Middle East and even to Europe. Later, in Saxony it became known as kupfernickel (Old Nick's copper). It was from this ore, studied by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, that nickel was isolated and recognized as a new element in 1751. In 1776 it was called nickel-silver composed of copper, nickel, and zinc. Demand for nickel-silver was stimulated in England about 1844 by the development of silver electroplating, for which it was found to be the most desirable base. The use of pure nickel as a corrosion-resistant electroplated coating developed a little later; both these uses are still important.

Small amounts of nickel were produced in Germany in the mid-19th century. A new source, New Caledonia in the South Pacific, came into production about 1877 and dominated un­til the development of the copper-nickel ores in Canada, Ontario, which after 1905 became the world's largest source of nickel. By the late 1970s, production of nickel in Soviet Rus­sia had exceeded that in Canada.

B

NICKEL ORES

The most important ores are sulfides containing nickel, copper, and iron. The nickel minerals are pentalandite (NiFe₉S₈), chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂), cubanite (CuFe₂S₃). Other important classes of ore are the result of long weathering of peridotite initially containing a small percentage of nickel. With nickel found in two radically different types of ore, it is not surprising that the mining methods differ. Sulfide deposits are usually mined by underground techniques in a manner similar to copper, although some deposits have been mined using open pits at early stages. The ore is .loaded into trucks at the face, as would be the case in an open pit, and hauled to the smelter.

The extraction of nickel from ore follows much the same route as copper, and in a number of cases, similar processes and equipment are used. The major differences in equipment are the use of higher-temperature refractories and the in­creased cooling required to accomodate the higher operating temperatures in nickel production. The specific processes taken depend on whether the ore is a sulfide or laterite. In the case of sulfides, the reaction of oxygen with iron and sulfur in the ore supplies a portion of the heat required for smelting. Oxide ores, on the other hand, do not produce the same reaction heats, making necessary the use of energy from other sources for smelting.

Sulfide ores are crushed and ground in order to liberate nickel minerals from waste materials by selective flotation. In this process, the ore is mixed with special reagents and agitated by mechanical and pneumatic devices that produce air bubbles. As these rise through the mixture, the sulfide particles adhere to their surfaces and are collected as a con­centrate containing 6 to 12 percent nickel. Because some nickel-bearing sulfides are magnetic, magnetic separators can be used in place of, or in conjunction with, flotation.

Nickel concentrates may be leached with sulfuric acid or ammonia, or they may be dried and smelted in flash and bath processes, as in the case with copper. Nickel requires higher smelting temperatures (in the range of 1350 °C) in order to produce an artificial nickel-iron sulfide known as matte, which contains 25 to 45 percent nickel. In the next step, iron in the matte is converted to an oxide, which combines with a silica flux to form a slag. This is done in a rotating converter of type used in copper production. The slag is drawn off, leav­ing a matte of 70 to 75 percent nickel. Because the conversion of nickel sulfide directly to metal would require an extremely high temperature (in excess of 1600 °C), the removal of sulfur at this stage of the converting process is controlled in order to produce 70—75 percent nickel matte, which has a lower melting point. Various processes are used to treat nick­el matte. One process is the ammonia pressure leach, in which nickel is recovered from solution using hydrogen reduction. In another, the matte may be roasted to produce high-grade nickel oxides; these are subjected to a pressure leach, and the solution is electro- and carbonyl refined.

EXERCISES (to the texts A, B)

Ex. 1. Write down the transcription of the following words and
practise reading them:

Unique, structure, ductility, exhibit, resistance, withstand, recognize, ore, zinc, desirable, region, mixture, grind.

Ex. 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given
below with their Russian equivalents:

improve small amounts extraction deposit an open pit low white alloy stage roast grind

низкий белый сплав улучшать малые количества извлечение залежь, месторождение дробить, молоть обжигать стадия карьер, открытая разработка

Ex. 3. Form sentences using the following words and word-com­binations:

In coinage; to provide corrosion resistance; to improve the stability of the protective oxide film; was called; the most important ores; were produced; sulfide ores.

Ex. 4. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-
combinations given below. Use them in the sentences of
your own:

Высокая устойчивость к коррозии; как легирующий ме­талл; наиболее важные руды; подобные процессы и обору­дование; сульфидные руды дробят.

Ex. 5. Complete the following sentences with the words from the text:

1. Nickel was used industrially as an metal.

2. Small amounts of nickel were produced in in the

19th century.

3. The ore is loaded into at the face, as would be

the case in the open pit.

4. The extraction of nickel from follows much the

same route as copper.

5. Iron in the matte is converted to which combines with a silica flux to form a slag.

Ex. 6. Connect the two matching parts of the sentence:

Nickel Chalcopyrite Sulfide deposits New equipment Small amounts of nickel

is an important ore. was isolated and recognized as a new element in 1751. were produced in Germany, in New Caledonia, in Canada, in Russia. are usually mined by underground techniques. is used to obtain pure nickel.

Ex. 7. Ask questions according to the following requests:

1. Ask one of the students what he knows about the most important ores containing nickel.

2. Ask one of the students what he can say about physical and chemical properties of nickel.

3. Ask one of the students when and where small amounts of nickel were produced.

4. Ask one of the students how nickel containing miner­als is usually mined.

5. Ask one of the students what he can say about sulfide ores.

6. Ask one of the students where the sulfide particles adhere and are collected.

7. Ask one of the students what temperature is used to produce 70 percent nickel matte.

Ex. 8. Ask 7 questions to the text "Nickel" and answer them.

Ex. 9. Write down a summary to the text "Nickel Ores".

Ex. 10. Work in pairs. Tell the partner about nickel processing.

CHAPTER 7. Lead A

LEAD

Lead is a grey malleable metal which melt at 327ºC, which is low for a metal.

Uses of lead.

Lead is used for roofing and for making pipes and sink traps because it is easily bent into shape; storage battery (accumulator) plates; cable sheathes; storage tanks for sulphuric acid; lead shot; solder; screens to stop harmful radiation from radioactive substances. Other lead alloys are type metal (lead + tin + bismuth + cadmium); fusible metal which melts at a low temperature and is used for making fuse wire and for operating automatic water sprinklers which extinguish outbreaks of fire in stores and offices.

Lead monoxide, litharge, PbO, is an orange coloured solid. It is formed by heating lead nitrate, carbonate or hydroxide. It is reduced to lead when heated with carbon, hydrogen or carbon monoxide. It is used for making grass that is brilliant and sparkling, i.e. decorative tableware.

Lead dioxide, PbO₂, is a chocolate coloured solid. It is formed by warming red lead with dilute nitric acid:

Pb₃O₄ + 4HNO₃ = 2Pb (NO₃)₂ + PbO₂ + 2H₂O

Lead dioxide is a higher oxide. It is seen on the positive plate of a charged accumulator.

Red lead, triplumbic tetroxide, Pb₃O₄, is a scarlet solid. It is made by carefully heating lead monoxide in air:

6PbO + O₂= 2Pb3O_4.

It is used in protective paint for iron; and in priming paint in which it oxidized the linseed oil to a hard resin.

Lead carbonate, “white lead”, is used in oil paint because it readily obliterates the previous colour.

Lead tetra-ethyl is added to petrol to prevent it being exploded by a hot engine. It acts as a negative catalyst.

VOCABULARY

1. malleable – ковкий

2. storage battery – аккумуляторная батарея

3. cable sheath – оболочка кабеля

4. lead shot – свинцовая дробь

5. type metal – типографский металл

6. fusible metal – легкоплавкий металл

7. fuse wire – предохранитель

8. sprinkler – спринклер

9. outbreaks of fire – пожар

10. litharge – глет (окись свинца)

11. red lead – красный свинец

12. dilute – разбавленный

13. nitric acid – азотная кислота

14. a higher oxide – высший окисел

15. priming paint – грунтовка

16. linseed oil – льняное масло

17. resin – смола

18. lead carbonate – свинцовые белила

19. readily obliterates the previous colour – легко уничтожает предыдущий слой

20. lead tetra-ethyl – тетратил свинца

21. petrol – бензин

22. to prevent it being exploded by – чтобы предупредить взрыв

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Answer the following questions:

1. How does lead look out?

2. Where is lead used?

3. What colour has litharge?

4. What colour has lead dioxide

5. How is red lead made by?

6. Where is red lead used?

B

LEAD

Lead is a soft, silvery-white or grayish metal. Lead is very malleable, ductile, and dense and is a poor conductor of electricity.

Lead (Pb) is one of the oldest metals known, being one of seven metals used in the ancient world (the others are gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and mercury). Its low melting point of 327 °C, coupled with its easy castability and softness and malleability, makes lead and lead alloys especially suitable for a wide range of cast products, including battery grids and terminals, counter-weights, plumbing components, and type metal. With a specific gravity of about 11.336 grams per cubic centimetre, lead is the densest of the common metals, except for gold; this makes it a good shield against X-rays and gamma radiation. Its combination of density and softness make it an excellent barrier to sound. Compared with other metals, lead is a poor conductor of heat and electricity, although it has excellent corrosion resistance when it can form an insoluble protective coating on its surface. The metal has a face-centered cubic crystal lattice structure.

Lead has been mined and smelted for at least 8000 years. One of the most important historical applications of lead was the water pipes of Rome. Lead pipes were fabricated in 3-metre length. Many of these pipes, still in excellent condition, have been uncovered in modern-day Rome and England. The Roman word "plumbum", denoting lead water spouts and connectors, is the origin of the English word plumbing and of the element's symbol, Pb. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a first-century-BC Roman architect and engineer, warned about the use of lead pipes for conveying water, recommending that clay pipes be used in­stead. Vitruvius also referred in his writing to the poor face colour of the workers in lead factories of that day, noting that the fumes from molten lead destroy the "vigour of the blood". On the other hand, there were many who believed lead to have medical qualities.

Many churches and major buildings constructed in the 15th and 16th centuries provide examples of lead employed as a roofing material and for water conveyance. The stained-glass windows of many cathedrals and castles of this period were made possible by the use of lead frames that held the glass elements together in a magnificent unity of colours and shapes.

In 1859 a French physicist G. Plante discovered that pairs of lead oxide and lead metal electrodes, when immersed in a sulfuric acid electrolyte, generated electrical energy and could subsequently be recharged. A series of further technical improvements by other investigators led to commercial production of lead-acid storage batteries by 1889. The huge growth of battery markets in the 20th century largely paralleled the rise of the automobile, in which batteries found application for starting, lighting, and ignition. Another prominent lead product was tetraethyl lead, a gasoline additive invented in 1921 in the USA to solve problems that had become commonplace with the development of high-compression engines operating at high temperatures. Soon after reaching its peak 50 years later, the use of this lead compound declined in the United States as the installation of catalytic converters became mandatory on the exhaust systems of all modern passenger cars.

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Write down the transcription of the following words and
practise reading them:

Malleable, conductor, lead, mercury, soft, softness, castability, compare, protective, lattice, blood, exhaust, invent, storage.

Ex. 2. Fill in the missing letters in the words below:

Coupl-, esp-cially, gr-vity, b-ilding, constr-cted, destro-, ar-hitect, ign-tion, solv-, ex-aust, c-r, s-stem.

Ex. 3. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-
combinations given below. Use them in the sentences of
your own:

Текучесть, один из старейших металлов, мягкость и ков­кость, удельный вес, хорошая защита от Х-лучей и гамма-радиации, нерастворимое защитное покрытие, добывали и плавили, длина, цвет.

Ex. 4. Find in the text all the cases where the word "lead" is used.

Ex. 5. Refer the following sentences to the past:

1. The combination of density and softness make lead an excellent barrier to sound.

2. Lead forms an insoluble protective coating on its surface.

3. One of the most important historical applications of lead is the water pipes of Rome.

4. This engineer warns about the use of lead pipes for conveying water.

5. He recommends clay pipes instead.

Ex. 6. Read the text and agree or disagree with the statements
given below:

1. Compared with other metals, lead is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

2. Water pipes, still in excellent condition, have been un­covered in modern-day Rome and England.

3. Marcus V. Pollio was an English architect and engineer.

4. He recommended the use of lead pipes for conveying water.

5. It was discovered that pairs of lead oxide and lead metal electrodes, when immersed in a sulfuric acid electrolyte, generated electrical energy.

6. They could not subsequently be recharged.

7. Lead found application in batteries for starting, lighting and ignition.

Ex. 7. Ask questions on all the parts of the following sentences:

1. Lead has been mined and smelted for at least 8000 years.

2. Lead is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.

CHAPTER 8. Zink A

Zink

Zinc is a moderately hard grey metal which acquired a protective coating of zinc oxide on its surface it burns in oxygen and in chlorine with a blush flame.

Uses of zinc.

1. Iron is protected from rust by being:

   1. dipped into molten zinc,

   2. sprayed with molten zinc,

   3. brushed with a paint made of fine zinc particles.

2. Zinc is used for the negative pole of dry batteries.

3. Brass (20 % zinc + 80% copper) is harder and cheaper than copper; it can be turned on lathe, it can be pressed into shape. It resists corrosion (brass hinges are used in preference to steel if they are exposed to weather).

Zinc oxide can be made by burning the metal in oxygen; heating the metal in steam; heating zinc carbonate, nitrate and hydroxide. It is readily identified because its colour is yellow when hot, and white when cold. Zinc oxide is used in paints because it is non-poisonous and is not discoloured by hydrogen sulphides. It has a soothing effect upon the skin and is used in ointments and lotions. It added to rubber for making racing motor tyres.

VOCABULARY

1. grey metal – сравнительно твердый металл серого цвета

2. be turned on lathe – обтачиваться на станке

3. pressed into shape – прессоваться в форме

4. brass –латунь

5. are exposed to weather – находиться на открытом воздухе

6. to be readily identified - легко обнаружить

7. hydrogen sulphides – сероводород

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the use of zinc?

2. How does zinc protect iron from rust?

3. What metal is harder and cheaper than copper?

4. What is the way of making zinc oxide?

B

Zink

Zinc (Zn), chemical element, low-melting metal of zinc group of the periodic table, essential to life, is one of the most widely used metals. Zinc was known in Roman times only in combination with copper as the alloy brass. The metallurgists of India seem to have isolated the individual metal as early as the 13th century, and those of China had achieved large-scale production of zinc by the 16th century. In the West, commercial zinc production got under way by the middle of the 18th century in England.

A little more abundant than copper, zinc makes up an average of 65 grams of every ton of the Earth's crust. The chief zinc mineral is the sulfide sphalerite (zincblende), which, together with its oxidation products smithsonite and hemi-morphite, constitute nearly all of the world's zinc ore.

Zinc is essential trace element in the human body, where it is found in high concentration in the red blood cells as an essential part, which promotes many reactions relating to carbon dioxide metabolism. Metallic zinc is produced by roasting the sulfide ores and then other leaching the oxidized product in sulfuric acid or smelting it in a blast furnace. Zinc is won from the leach solution by electrolyses or is condensed from the blast furnace gas and then distilled of impurities.

The major uses of zinc metal are in galvanizing iron and steel and in making brasses and alloys for die-casting. The negative electrode in one common type of electric dry cell is composed of zinc.

Freshly cast zinc has a bluish silver surface but slowly oxidizes in air to form a grayish protective oxide film. Highly pure zinc (99.99 percent) is ductile.

Zinc oxide (ZnO) is one of the most important zinc compounds. It can be prepared in a state of high purity and in a variety of crystal shapes and sizes by burning zinc vapour in air. Because of its high heat conductivity and capacity, zinc oxide is frequently incorporated into rubber as a heat dissipater. Specific treatments of zinc oxide crystals produces various electrical, photo-electrical, and catalytic properties. As a result, zinc oxide is used as a semiconductor in the production of phosphorus for television tubes and fluorescent lamps. Its effects on the reactivity of many compounds make it useful as a catalyst in such operations as the manufacture of synthetic rubber and methanol. It is also used in paints, cosmetics, plastics, pharmaceuticals, and printing inks. Because under the influence of light, the electrical conductivity of zinc oxide can be increased many times, it is employed in certain photocopying process.

Zinc sulfate (ZnS0₄) is an intermediate compound in the production of zinc from its ores by the electrolytic process. Zinc chloride (ZnCl₂), can be prepared by direct reaction or by evaporating the aqueous solution formed in various reactions. It is strongly deliquescent (water-absorbing) and is utilized as a drying agent and as a flux. In aqueous form it is used as a wood preservative. Zinc sulfide (ZnS), occurs in nature as the mineral sphalerite and may be prepared by treating solu­tions of zinc salts with hydrogen sulfide. It was long used as a white pigment but has been gradually replaced by titanium dioxide. Zinc sulfide has luminescent properties when activated by the addition of small quantities of copper, manganese, silver, or arsenic and so has been used in X-ray screens, in luminous dials for clocks and watches, and in fluorescent lights.

VOCABUALRY:

1. sphalerite - сфалерит, сульфид цинка, цинковая обманка

2. smithsonite - смитсонит, природный карбонат цинка

3. hemimorphite - гемиморфит, природный силикат цинка

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Write down the transcription of the following words and
practise reading them:

Deliquescent, agent, strongly, metallurgist, solution, condense, negative, protective, capacity, catalytic, conductivity, inter­mediate, rubber.

Ex. 2. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-
combinations given below. Use them in the sentences of
your own:

Легкоплавкий металл; был известен; большее распростра­нение; кора Земли; высокая концентрация; сульфидные руды; доменный газ; только что отлитый цинк; защитная оксидная пленка; в состоянии высокой чистоты; высокая теплопроводность; обработка окиси цинка; полупроводник; под влиянием; электролитный процесс; добавление малых количеств меди; часы.

Ex. 3. Using the glossary define the meaning of the words given
below:

Metallurgy, cast, casting, mining, ore, oxide, oxidation, roast, blast furnace, electrolysis, parting, rod, annealing, bar, carbide.

Ex. 4. Write the following sentences in interrogative form:

1. The metallurgists of India have isolated the individual metal zinc.

2. Zinc is an essential trace element in the human body.

3. Metallic zinc is produced by roasting the sulfide ores.

4. Then it was leached in sulfuric acid.

5. Zinc is won from the leach solution by electrolysis.

6. It was condensed from the blast furnace gas.

7. The negative electrode in one common type of electric dry cell is composed of zinc.

8. Freshly cast zinc has a bluish silver surface.

9. In air, it forms a grayish protective oxide film.

Ex. 5.Read the text and agree or disagree with the statements
given below:

1. Because of its high heat conductivity and capacity, zinc oxide cannot be used in plastics, pharmaceuticals, and printing inks.

2. Because under the influence of light, the electrical conductivity of zinc oxide can be increased many times, it is employed in certain photocopying process.

3. Zinc chloride cannot be prepared by a direct reaction, it can be produced by evaporating the aqueous solution formed in various reactions.

Ex. 6. Find in the text all the cases where properties and uses of zinc are described.

Ex. 7. Find antonyms among the following words:

To find, to lose, to begin, to give, to finish, to ask, to take, to answer, difficult, good, well, bad, easy, badly.

Ex. 8. Listen to the international words and learn to pronounce them correctly:

Chemical, element, carbon, dioxide, reaction, metal, metallic, metallurgist, product, production, sulfuric, sulfide, galvanizing, electricity, electrode, result, pharmaceutical, process, fluorescent, lamp.

Ex. 9. Replace the words in italics with appropriate personal pronouns:

1. Zinc oxidizes in air and forms a grayish protective oxide film.

2. Zinc oxide is used in certain photocopying process.

3. Zinc sulfide has luminescent properties.

4. The metallurgists of India have often used zinc and its alloys.

5. In aqueous form zinc chloride is used as a wood preservative.

Ex. 10. Put the verbs in brackets in the appropriate tenses and forms:

1. The chemists and metallurgists (achieve) large-scale production of zinc by the 16th century.

2. Zinc (make up) an average of 65 grams of every ton of the Earth's crust.

3. Zinc sulfide (occur) in nature as the mineral sphale­rite.

4. It (have) luminescent properties when activated by the addition of copper, manganese, silver.

5. Zinc (be) known in Roman times only in combination with copper.

Ex. 11. Find the words with the same root in the text, define the part of speech and translate them into Russian:

Example: develop (v) – развивать, development (n) - развитие

Abundance (n), operate (v), achievement (n), cast (v), wide (adj), commercially (adv), chiefly (adv), essentially (adv), western (adj), conduct (v).

CHAPTER 9. Platinum group metals A

GOLD

Gold, silver, and the six metals of the platinum group – platinum, palladium, osmium, iridium, rhodium, and ruthenium belong to precious metals.

Gold is a dense, lustrous, yellow precious metal. It has several qualities which have made it valuable throughout history. Gold is attractive in colour and brightness. It is highly malleable, durable to the point of virtual indestructibility, and usually found in nature in a pure form. It is one of the heaviest of all metals. Gold is a good conductor of heat and electricity. It is also soft and the most malleable and ductile of metals.

Gold was one of the first metals attracting human attention. It is visually pleasing and workable and does not tarnish or corrode. So gold is universally accepted in exchange for goods and services in form of coins or bullion. It played a major role as a high-denomination currency, although silver has been standard medium of payments.

Gold occur mostly in the native state and combine with tellurium, selenium, and possibly bismuth.

It often occurs with copper and lead deposits. There are two types of deposits containing gold hydrothermal veins (with quartz and pyrite); and placer deposits.

The origin of enriched veins is not fully known, but it is believed that the gold was carried up from great depths with other minerals.

VOCABUALRY:

1. palladium – палладий

2. osmium – осмий

3. iridium – иридий

4. rhodium – родий

5. ruthenium – рутений

6. dense – плотный

7. attractive – привлекательный

8. durable – прочный

9. virtual – фактический

10. indestructible – не поддающийся разрушению

11. pure form – чистая форма

12. heaviest – самый тяжелый

13. conductor – проводник

14. attention – внимание

15. to tarnish – тускнеть

16. to corrode – подвергаться коррозии

17. universally – универсальный

18. to accept – получать

19. in exchange for goods and services – обменивать на товары и услуги

20. in form of – в форме

21. bullion – слиток (золота или серебра)

22. a high-denomination currency – высоко деноминационная валюта

23. medium – средний

24. payment – платеж

25. to occur – встречаться

26. native state – природное состояние

27. tellurium – таллий

28. selenium – селений

29. bismuth – висмут

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Read and translate the following words:

Precious, gold, silver, platinum group, lustrous, quality, brightness, visually, unique, uncombined, hydrothermal, associate, quartz, source, coin, ancient.

Ex. 2. Fill in the missing letters in the words given below:

W _rkable, t_rnish, corr_de, _ttract, un_versally, g_nerally, c_rrency, st_ndard, pa_ment, ac_ept, d_posit.

Ex. 3. Make up the sentences using the following words and translate them into Russian.

1. in / Egypt / were/ alluvial / of / gold / found / deposits / ancient.

2. Russia / producer / became / the / leading / of / gold / in / 1823.

3. gold / usually / alloyed / is / other / metals / with.

4. goes / colour / the / these / alloys / gold / of / yellow / from / white / in / to.

5. to make / coins / gold / alloy /silver / or / of / with / copper / used / are / and / goldware.

Ex. 4. Match the English words with their Russian equivalents.

monetary system tarnish medium great depth too soft gold coins jewelry beauty vein deposit

золотые монеты ювелирное дело слишком мягкий месторождение средство денежная единица большая глубина тускнеть красота золотоносная жила

PLATINUM (Pt)

Platinum is the best known and most widely used of the six metals of platinum group. It is very heavy, precious, silver-white metal.

Platinum is soft and ductile and has a high melting point and good resistance to corrosion and chemical attack. Small amounts of iridium are commonly added of pure platinum.

Platinum and its alloys are indispensable in the chemical laboratory for electrodes and for crucibles and dishes in which materials can be heated to high temperatures. Platinum is used for electrical contacts and sparking points because it resists both the high temperatures and chemical attack of electric arcs. The jewelry and dental alloys account for much of use. Platinum-iridium is used for surgical pins. The electrical resistivity of platinum is relatively high and depends upon the temperature as a catalyst. It has many applications, notably in automotive catalytic converters and in petroleum refining.

VOCABULARY:

1. platinum – платина

2. precious – драгоценный

3. ductile – пластичный

4. a high melting point – высокая точка плавления

5. resistance – сопротивление

6. corrosion – коррозия

7. chemical attack – химическая атака

8. amount – количество

9. iridium – иридий

10. alloy – сплав

11. indispensable – необходимый

12. electrode – электрод

13. а crucible – тигель

14. electrical contact – электрический контакт

15. electric arc – электрическая дуга

16. jewelry – ювелирный

17. dental – зубной

18. surgical pin – хирургическая игла

19. resistivity – сопротивляемость

20. a catalyst – катализатор

21. application – применение

22. notably – значительно

23. automotive catalytic converter – автоматический каталитический конвертер

24. petroleum refining – очищение бензина

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Fill in the missing letters in the words given below:

Je_elry, d_ntal, su_gical, res_sti_ity, cat_lyst, ap_lication, n_tably, a_tomotive.

Ex. 2. Find in the text the English equivalents for the words and word-combinations given below:

Самый известный и широко используемый; очень тяжелый, драгоценный, серебристо-белый металл; обладает высокой точкой плавления; небольшое количество; чистая платина; слав платины незаменим в химических лабораториях; электрический контакт; сопротивляется химической атаке электрической дуги;

Ex. 3. Complete the following sentence with the words from the text and translate them into Russian.

1. Platinum is soft and ____ and has a high ___ point.

2. Platinum is used for electrical _____.

3. The electrical ___ of platinum is relatively high and depends ____ the temperature as a _____.

4. Platinum and its ____ are indispensable in the chemical ______.

5. Platinum is very heavy, ______, silver-white ____.

Ex. 4. Make up the sentences from the following words and translate them into Russian.

1. Pins / platinum / is / iridium / used / surgical / for.

2. Is / of / of / the / the / platinum / platinum / known / used / best / and / most / widely / metals / group.

3. Platinum / chemical / indispensable / alloys / laboratory / and / its / are / in / the.

4. Platinum / contacts / electrical / is / for / used.

5. The / and / for / of / jewelry / dental / alloys / account / much.

B

PLATINUM GROUP METALS

Gold (Au), silver (Ag), and the six metals of the platinum group — platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), osmium (Os), iridium (Ir), rhodium (Rh), and ruthenium (Ru) belong to precious metals.

Gold, chemical element, a dense, lustrous, yellow precious metal has several qualities that have made it exceptionally valuable throughout history. It is attractive in colour and brightness, durable to the point of virtual indestructibility, highly malleable, and usually found in nature in a comparatively pure form. Gold is one of the heaviest of all metals. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity. It is also soft and the most malleable and ductile of metals.

Because gold is visually pleasing and workable and does not tarnish or corrode, it was one of the first metals to attract human attention. Owing to its unique qualities, gold has been the one material that is universally accepted in exchange for goods and services. In the form of coins or bullion, gold has occasionally played a major role as a high-denomination currency, although silver has generally been the standard medium of payments in the world's trading systems. Although gold's official role in the international monetary system had come to an end by the 1970s, the metal remains a highly regarded reserve asset. Gold is still accepted by all nations as a medium of international payment.

Gold occurs mostly in the native state, remaining chemically uncombined except with tellurium, selenium, and possibly bismuth.

Gold often occurs in association with copper and lead deposits, and, though the quantity present is often extremely small, it is readily recovered as a by-product in the refining of those base metals. Two types of deposits containing significant amounts of gold are known: hydrothermal veins, where it is associated with quartz and pyrite; and placer deposits.

The origin of enriched veins is not fully known, but it is believed that the gold was carried up from great depths with other minerals. Alluvial deposits of gold found in or along streams were the principal sources of the metal for ancient Egypt. Other deposits were found in Turkey, India, China, in Europe in Saxony and Austria. Russia became the world's leading producer of gold in 1823. In the late 20th century four countries - South Africa, Russia, the United States, and Australia - accounted for two-thirds of the gold pro­duced annually throughout the world.

Because pure gold is too soft to resist prolonged handling, it is usually alloyed with other metals to increase its hardness for use in jewelry, goldware, or coinage. Most gold used in jewelry is alloyed with silver, copper, and a little zinc to produce various shades of yellow gold or with nickel, copper, and zinc to produce white gold. The colour of these gold alloys goes from yellow to white as the proportion of silver in them increases; more than 70 per cent silver results in alloys that are white. Alloys of gold with silver or copper are used to make gold coins and goldware, and alloys with platinum or palladium are also used in jewelry. The content of gold alloys is expressed in 24ths, called karats; a 12-karat gold alloy is 50 percent gold, and 24-karat gold is pure.

Because of its high electrical conductivity (71 per cent that of copper) and inertness, the largest industrial use of gold is in the electric and electronics industry for plating contacts, terminals, printed circuits, and semiconductor system. Thin films of gold that reflect up to 98 per cent of incident infrared radiation have been employed on setellites to control temperature and on space-suit visors to afford protection. Used n-3383 in a similar way on the windows of large office buildings, gold reduces the air-conditioning requirement and adds to the beauty. Gold has also long been used for fillings and other repairs to teeth.

Several organic compounds of gold have industrial applications, sometimes they are used in certain organic solutions for decorating glass articles.

Platinum (Pt), chemical element, the best known and most widely used of the six metals of platinum group is a very heavy, precious, silver-white metal.

Platinum is soft and ductile and has a high melting point and good resistance to corrosion and chemical attack. For example, its surface remains bright after being brought to white heat in air, and though it readily dissolves in aqua regia, it is scarcely attacked by simple acids. Small amounts of iridium are commonly added to give a harder, stronger alloy that retains the advantages of pure platinum.

Platinum and its alloys are indispensable in the chemical laboratory for electrodes and for crucibles and dishes in which materials can be heated to high temperatures. Platinum is used for electrical contacts and sparking points because it resists both the high temperatures and chemical attack of electric arcs. The jewelry and dental alloys account for much of use; platinum-iridium is used for surgical pins. The elec­trical resistivity of platinum is relatively high and depends upon the temperature as a catalyst; platinum has many applications, notably in automative catalytic converters and in petroleum refining.

VOCABULARY:

1. tellurium – теллур

2. selenium – селен

3. bismuth – висмут

4. quartz – кварц

5. infrared - инфракрасный

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Write down the transcription of the following words and practise reading them:

Precious, lustrous, quality, brightness, visually, unique, un-combined, hydrothermal, associate, quartz, source, ancient.

Ex. 2. Listen to the international words and learn to pronounce them correctly:

History, virtual, nature, form, universal, role, monetory sys­tem, nation, mineral, proportion, result, karat, electronics industry, reflect, satellite, control, organic.

Ex. 3. Match the English words and word-combinations given below with their Russian equivalents:

monetary system tarnish medium great depth too soft gold coins jewelry beauty satellite office building

золотые монеты ювелирное дело слишком мягкий средство денежная система большая глубина тускнеть офисное здание красота спутник

Ex. 4. Fill in the missing letters in the words given below:

i - rkable, t-rnish, corr-de, -ttract, un-versally, g-nerally, c-rrency, I ndard, pa-ment, ac-ept, d-posit.

Ex. 5. Combine these words into sentences:

1. in, Egypt, were, alluvial, of, gold, found, deposits, an­cient.

1. Russia, producer, became, the, leading, of, gold, in, 1823.

2. gold, usually, alloyed, is, other, metals, with.

3. goes, colour, the, these, alloys, gold, of, yellow, from, white, to.

4. to make, coins, gold, alloys, silver, or, of, with, cop­per, used, are, and, goldware.

Ex. 6. Ask questions according to the following requests (to be done after reading the text):

1. Ask one of the students what he can say about gold deposits.

2. Ask one of the students what chemical properties gold has.

3. Ask one of the students what he can say about softness and mal-leability of gold.

4. Ask one of the students when Russia became the world's leading producer of gold.

5. Ask one of the students how hardness of gold can be increased.

6. Ask one of the students where gold and gold alloys are used.

Ex. 7. Make the following sentences interrogative and give short answers:

1. Gold occurs mostly in the native state.

2. Gold can occur in association with copper and lead de­posits.

3. Other deposits were found in Turkey, China, India.

4. Pure gold is a very soft metal.

5. Gold can be used in jewelry.

6. 24-karat gold is pure.

7. Gold conducts electricity well.

Ex. 8. Get ready to retell the text "Platinum Group Metals".

Ex. 9. Write out the words with the same root from the text, define their part of speech and translate them into Russian:

Example: pay (v) – платить, payment (n) - оплата

Chemist (n), use (v), compare (v), possible (adj), work (n), product (n), softness (n), occurence (n), money (n), resistance (n).

CHAPTER 10. Rare-Earth Elements A, B

RARE-EARTH ELEMENTS

The rare-earth elements are not rare in nature. They are found in low concentrations widely distributed throughout the Earth's crust and in high concentrations in a considerable number of minerals. In addition, they are also found in many meteorites, on the Moon, and in the Sun. Cerium is reported to be more abundant in the Earth's crust than tin, and yttrium and neodymium more abundant than lead. The rare-earth elements are found as mixtures in almost all massive rock formations, in concentrations from ten to a few hundred parts per million by weight.

In 1869, when D. Mendeleyev first proposed the Periodic table, he found it necessary to leave a blank at the position now occupied by scandium. He predicted that a new element would be found to fit that blank in the table, and he also predicted certain properties of the element. The discovery of scandium a few years later (1879) and the agreement of its properties with those predicted by D. Mendeleyev helped to bring about general scientific acceptance of Mendeleyev's Periodic table.

Analytical methods involving activation analysis and mass spectroscopy have made it possible to make accurate meas­urement of the relative abundances of these elements, even when they are present in extremely small amounts. Such measurements are of great interest.

The pure rare-earth metals are bright and silvery. A bar of europium will tarnish almost immediately when exposed to air and will be entirely converted to the powdered oxide in a few days. Metallic yttrium, gadolinium, and lutecium, on the other hand, remain bright and shiny for years.

The properties of the rare-earth metals are frequently quite sensitive to the presence of impurities; for example, the light lanthanide metals will corrode much more rapidly if small amounts of calcium or magnesium or rare-earth oxides are present in the metal. The melting points and transition temperatures between different crystal forms can change drastically, frequently by several hundred degrees, when the metals are alloyed with other elements. Small amounts of nonmetallic impurities also affect many of the properties of the rare-earth elements. Several thousand parts per million by weight of oxygen and even smaller amounts of nitrogen in the metals make them brittle. Some properties, such as elastic constants, resistivity, and effective magnetic moments, are very sensitive to temperature. Also, some properties depend on the angle at which they are measured with respect to the principal crystal axes in the metal.

In fact, the rare-earth metals do not resemble one another as closely as was generally believed at beginning of the 20th century. Each of the rare-earth metals readily combines with almost any other metallic element, and the resulting alloys exhibit a wide variety of properties: they can be hard or soft, brittle or ductile, and they can have high or low melting points.

Because the ions of the rare-earth elements are surrounded by tightly bound water molecules in aqueous solution, compounds of the rare-earth formed from aqueous solutions have properties much alike, and this similarity is particularly true for adjacent elements. The problem is still further complicated by the fact that one rare-earth ion can be substituted readily for another in crystal lattices. At the time, many different processes were used, such as fractional crystallization, fractional precipitation,

fractional decomposition, and fractional extraction. All of these processes consisted of separating the mixed rare-earth into two approximately equal fractions, one of which would be enriched in the lighter elements and the other in the heavier elements. Both fractions would be put back into solution and the process repeated on each of them. Usually the adjacent inner fractions would be recombined before proceeding to the next stage. Gradually, the lighter rare earths were collected in the beakers toward one end of the system, with the heavier elements concentrated at the other end.

Fractional separation methods, particularly for adjacent heavy rare earths, are extremely slow and tedious. Ion exchange is a method of separation based on differential absorbtion and elution (washing off) of substances from certain solid supporting materials, often powdered or finally divided materials held in glass tubes. When it is necessary to obtain large amounts of rare earths in high purity, this process is not effective. It does not give the purity of the individual rare earths that displacement methods can achieve. Finally, the elution process is slow compared with the displacement method. This process is capable of being scaled up to handle any quantity of rare earths.

VOCABULARY:

1. meteorite - метеорит

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Write down the transcription of the following words and practice reading them:

Rare, radioactive, refractory, mixture, cerium, selenium, uranium, similarity, predict, bright, lanthanide, frequently.

Ex. 2. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-
combinations given below. Use them in the sentences of
your own:

1. редкоземельные элементы

2. рассеянные редкие металлы

3. в низких концентрациях

4. они находятся также

5. более распространены, чем

6. не были выделены в минералы

7. горообразование и эрозия

8. сходство в свойствах

9. были предсказаны определенные свойства

1. позволило провести точные измерения

2. чистые редкоземельные металлы

Ex. 3. Write out the words with the same root from the text,
define their part of speech and translate them into Russian:

Example: add - addition

Form (v); measure (v); equality (n); concentrate (v); silver (n); science (n); soluble (adj); drastic (adj); particular (adj); possibility (n); precipitate (v); extreme (adj).

Ex. 4. Using the glossary define the meanings of the words given
below:

cathode, anode, direct current, ductility, electrolysis, ingot, ore, oxide, parting, precipitation, rare-earth metals, refractories, rod, smelting, solution, rock.

Ex. 5. Complete the following sentences with the words from
the text:

1. The rare-earth elements are not in .

2. They are found in widely distributed throughout the .

3. They are found in many , on the , and in

the .

5. is reported to be more abundant in the _____ than tin.

6. and are more abundant than lead.

1. The rare-earth elements are found as .

2. In D. Mendeleyev first proposed the .

3. He found it necessary to leave ____at the position now occupied by _____.

10. He also predicted certain of the element.

Ex. 6. Ask questions on all the parts of the following sentences:

1. Analytical methods involve activation analysis and mass spectroscopy.

2. Metallic yttrium, lutecium, gadolinium remain bright and shiny for years.

Ex. 7. Ask questions according to the following requests:

1. Ask one of the students what he knows about rare-earth elements.

2. Ask one of the students what he can say about the distribution of rare-earth metals in the Earth's crust.

3. Ask one of the students what he knows about D. Men-deleyev's Periodic table.

4. Ask one of the students what he can say about the properties of the rare-earth metals.

5. Ask one of the students what processes are used in order to obtain rare-earth metals.

6. Ask one of the students what he knows about fraction­al separation methods.

MOLYBDENUM PROCESSING

Molybdenum (Mo), chemical element, silver-gray refractory metal is used to impart superior strength to steel and other alloys at high temperature.

The Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele had demonstrated (1778) that the mineral Molybdaina (now molybdenite), for a long time to be a lead ore or graphite, certainly contains sulfur and possibly previously unknown metal. At Scheele's suggestion, Peter J. Helm, another Swedish chemist, successfully isolated the metal (1782) and named it molybdenum, from the Greek "Molybdos" - "lead".

Molybdenum is not found free in nature. A relatively rare element, it is about as abundant as tungsten, which it resembles. Most commercial production is from ores containing the mineral molybdenite.

Molybdenum is a white, platinum-like metal with a melting point of 2.610°С In its pure state, it is tough and ductile and is characterized by moderate hardness, high thermal con­ductivity, high resistance to corrosion, and a low expansion coefficient. When alloyed with other metals, molybdenum promotes hardenability and toughness, augments tensile strength and creep resistance, and generally promotes uniform hardness. Small quantities of molybdenum (of 1 per cent or less) significantly improve the abrasion resistance, anticorrosive properties, and high-temperature strength and toughness of the matrix material. Molybdenum is a vital addition agent in the manufacture of steels and highly sophisticated non-ferrous superalloys.

Since the molybdenum atom has the same character as that of tungsten but only about half its atomic weight and density, it replaces tungsten in alloy steels, allowing the same metallurgical effect to be achieved with half as much metal.

The only commercially viable minerals in the production of molybdenum are its bisulfide (MoS₂), found in molybdenite, and copper porphyries.

Molybdenum and copper-molybdenum porphyries are mined by open-pit or by underground methods. Once the ore has been crushed and ground, the metallic minerals are then separated from gangue minerals (or the molybdenum and copper from each other) by floatation processes, using a wide variety of reagents.

About 97 per cent of MoS₂ must be converted into technical molybdic oxide (85—90 per cent Mo0₃) in order to reach its commercial destination. Such conversion is almost universally carried out in multiple-hearth furnaces, into which molybdenite concentrate is fed from the top against a current of heated air and gases blown from the bottom. In the first hearth, the concentrate is preheated and the floatation reagents ignite, initiating the transformation of MoS₂ into MoS₃. This exothermic reaction, which continues in the following hearth, is controlled by adjustment of the oxygen and by water sprays that cool the furnace. The temperature should not rise above 650 °C, the point at which Mo0₃ sublimates or vaporizes directly from the solid state. The process is finished, when the sulfur content of the calcines falls below 0.1 per cent.

Technical molybdic oxide is made into briquettes that are fed directly into furnaces to make alloy steels and other foundry products. They also are used to make ferro-molybdenum, but if more purified molybdenum products are desired, such as molybdenum chemicals or metallic molybdenum, then tech­nical Mo0₃ must be refined to chemically pure Mo0₃ by sublimation. This is carried out in electric retorts at temperatures between 1200 °G and 1250 °C. Aqueous ammonia is used to obtain chemically pure Mo0₃. Obtained ammonium molybdate, in the form of white crystals, assays 81 to 83 percent Mo0₃, or 54 to 55 per cent molybdenum. It is soluble in water and is used for the preparation of molybdenum chemicals and cata­lysts as well as metallic molybdenum powder.

The production of metallic molybdenum from pure Mo0₃ or ammonium molybdate (Am) is carried out in electrically heated tubes or muff el furnaces, into which hydrogen gas is introduced as a countercurrent against the feed. There are two stages in which the Mo0₃ or Am is first reduced to a dioxide and then to a metal powder.

VOCABULARY:

1. molybdenite - молибденовый блеск, молибденит

2. porphyry - порфир

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Write down the transcription of the following words and
practise reading them:

Molybdenum, graphite, suggestion, moderate, coefficient, toughness, augment, sophisticate, exothermic, sublimation, assay, aqueous.

Ex. 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given
below with their Russian equivalents; use them in the
sentences of your own:

silver-gray refractory metal it is abundant high thermal conductivity it augments tensile strength anticorrosive property toughness to achieve floatation process multiple-hearth furnace to sublimate

распространен высокая теплопроводность антикоррозийное свойство жесткость, вязкость процесс флотации многоподовая печь возгонять достигать он увеличивает предел прочности серебристо-серый тугоплавкий металл

Ex. 3. Find the words with the same root in the text, define the part of speech and translate them into Russian:

Example: extract (v) - выделять, извлекать, extraction (n) - извлечение

Promotion (n), strengthen (v), resist (v), ductility (n), con­tainer (n), sublimation (n), high (adj), direct (adj), prepare (v), calcination (n).

Ex. 4. Using the glossary combine these parts of sentences:

Cation Clarification Thermal conductivity Digestion Fuming Fusibility Grinding

is the measure of the ability of a metal to allow the passage of heat. is an ability to be easily melted. is an ion carrying a positive charge. is a slag sublimation process in the lead production. is crushing into fine particles between two hard surfaces. is a process of making a solution clearer and free from impurities. is a process of extracting soluble elements from substances by heating them.

Ex. 5. Find synonyms among the following words:

Period, extraction, manner, lifetime, method, derivation, application, leaching, enhance, multiply, digestion, fuming, sublimation, use.

Ex. 6. Answer the following questions:

1. What is molybdenum?

2. What properties does molybdenum have?

3. Who demonstrated (1778) the mineral molybdenum?

4. When was this metal isolated?

5. Is molybdenum found free in nature?

6. What properties of metals do small quantities of molybdenum improve?

7. What character does the molybdenum atom have?

8. What methods are molybdenum and molybdenum porphyries mined by?

9. What furnaces are used to obtain molybdenum?
10. When is the sublimation process finished?

TUNGSTEN

Tungsten (W), also called Wolfram, chemical element, an exceptionally strong refractory metal, is used in steel production to increase hardness and strength and in lamp filaments.

Tungsten metal was first isolated (1783) by the Spanish chemists and mineralogists Juan Jose and Fausto Elhuyar by charcoal reduction of the oxide (W0₃) derived from the mineral wolframite. Earlier (1781) the Swedish chemist Carl W. Scheele had discovered tungstic acid in a mineral now known as scheelite, and his countryman T. Bergman had concluded that a new metal could be prepared from the acid. The names tungsten and wolfram have been used for the metal since its discovery. In British and American usage tungsten is preferred; in Germany and a number of other European countries wolfram is accepted.

The amount of tungsten in the Earth's crust is estimated to be 1.5 parts per million or about 1.5 grams per ton of rock. Tungsten is about as abundant as tin or as molybdenum, which it resembles, and half as plentiful as uranium. The two economically important minerals are wolframite and scheelite.

Tungsten metal has a nickel-white to grayish lustre. Among metals it has the highest melting point, the highest tensile strength at temperatures of more than 1650 °C, and the lowest coefficient of linear thermal expansion. Tungsten is ordinarily brittle at room temperature. Pure tungsten can be made ductile by mechanical working at high temperatures and can then be drawn into very fine wire. Tungsten was first commercially employed as a lamp filament material and thereafter used in many electrical and electronic applications. It is used in the form of tungsten carbide for very hard and tough dies, tools, gauges, and bits. Much tungsten goes into the production of tungsten steels, and some has been used in the aerospace industry to fabricate rocket-engines nozzle throats and leading-edge reentry surfaces.

Chemically tungsten is relatively inert. The most important tungsten compound is tungsten carbide (WC), which is noted for its hardness. It is used alone or in combination with other metals to impart wear-resistance to cast iron and the cutting edges of saws and drills.

Tungsten ores are beneficated by crushing followed by gravity concentration. Floatation separation is used for

scheelite that has been ground to a fine size to liberate the tungsten; this is further supplemented by leaching, roasting, and magnetic or high-tension separation when required.

Tungsten ores frequently occur in association with sulfides, which can be removed by roasting in air for two to four hours at 800 °C. In order to produce ammonium paratungstate, an intermediate compound in production of the pure metal, ores may be decomposed by acid leaching or by the autoclave-soda process. In the acid-leaching process, scheelite concentrate is decomposed by hydrochloric acid in the presence of sodium nitrate as an oxidizing agent. This charge is agitated by steam spraying and is maintained at 70 °C for 12 hours. The resultant slurry, containing tungsten in the form of a solid tungstic acid, is diluted and allowed to settle. The tungstic acid is then dissolved in aqueous ammonia at 60 °C for two hours under stirring. The solution is filtered through pressure filters and evaporated to obtain tungsten crystals. Tungsten powder is compacted into bars or billets with a mechanical or isostatic press prior to sintering. A sintering process is used for large tungsten billets.

VOCABULARY:

1. scheelite - шеелит, вольфрамит кальция, вольфрамовая руда

2. K.W. Scheele (1742—86) — Swedish chemist

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Write down the transcription of the following words and
practise reading them:

Filament, discovery, wire, tensile, carbide, association, beneficate, hour, precipitate, stir, aqueous, impurity, sinter, bar.

Ex. 2. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-
combinations given below. Use them in the sentences of
your own:

1. исключительно твердый тугоплавкий металл

2. впервые был выделен

3. восстановление оксида

4. вольфрамовая кислота

5. заключать

6. так же распространен, как олово

7. экономически важные минералы

8. сероватый блеск

9. тепловое расширение

10. нить накаливания

Ex. 3. Ask questions on all the parts of the following sentences:

1. Tungsten metal has a nickel-white to grayish lustre.

2. Among metals, tungsten has the highest melting point, the highest tensile strength.

3. Pure tungsten can be made ductile by mechanical working at high temperatures.

Ex. 4. Using the glossary combine these parts of sentences:

Alloy	is a small unfinished bar of iron and steel, or another metal.
Billet	is an amorphous form of carbon produced by partially burning wood.
Carbide	is a process of breaking up or separating into basic components or parts.
Charcoal	is the compound formed when an element combines with carbon.
Decomposition	is an intimate blend of one metal with other metals or non-metals.

Ex. 5. Read the text and agree or disagree with the statements given below:

1. Tungsten has a reddish lustre.

2. Tungsten is ordinarily brittle at room temperature.

3. Chemically tungsten is relatively inert.

4. The resultant slurry, containing tungsten in the form of a liquid tungstic acid, is diluted and allowed to settle.

5. A sintering process is used for small tungsten billets.

Ex. 6. Answer the following questions:

1. What is tungsten?

2. When was tungsten first isolated?

3. Who discovered tungstic acid?

4. Is tungsten an abundant metal?

5. What colour is tungsten?

6. What properties does tungsten have?

7. Is tungsten brittle at room temperature?

8. Where tungsten was first employed?

9. Where is tungsten used?

10. How are tungsten ores beneficated?

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

METALS DISCOVERED IN THE 18th CENTURY

1735 Cobalt; 1751 Nickel; 1774 Manganese; 1781 Molybdenum; 1782 Tellurium; 1983 Tungsten; 1789 Uranium; 1789 Zirconium; 1791 Titanium; 1794 Yttrium; 1797 Berylium; 1797 Chromium.

METALS DISCOVERED IN THE 19th CENTURY

1801 Niobium; 1802 Tantalum; 1803 Iridium, Palladium, Rhodium; 1807 Potassium, Sodium; 1808 Boron, Barium, Calcium, Magnesium, Strontcium; 1814 Cerium; 1817 Lithium, Cadmium, Selenium; 1823 Silicon; 1827 Aluminium; 1828 Thorium; 1830 Vanadium; 1839 Lanthanium; 1843 Erbium, Terbium; 1844 Ruthenium; 1860 Cesium, Rubidium; 1861 Thallium; 1863 Indium; 1875 Gallium; 1878—1885 Holmium, Thulium, Scandium, Samarium, Gadalinium, Praseodynium, Neodynium, Dysprosium; 1886 Germanium; 1898 Polonium, Radium; 1899 Actinium.

METALS DISCOVERED IN THE 20th CENTURY

1901 Europium; 1907 Lutetium; 1917 Protactinium; 1923 Hafnium; 1924 Rhenium; 1937 Technetium; 1939 Francium; 1945 Promethium; 1940—1961 Transuranium elements: Neptunium, Plutonium, Cirium, Americum, Berkelium, Californium, Einsteinium, Fermium, Mendelevium, Nobelium, Lawrencium.

GLOSSARY

A

alloy - an intimate blend of one metal, known as the "parent" or "base" metal, with other metals or non-metals.

alloy steel - steel containing other elements in addition to carbon.

amalgamation - a process of extraction of a precious metal from its ore by alloying it with mercury.

ampere - the standard unit for measuring the strength of an electric current (named after Ampere 1775—1836, a French physicist and mathematician).

anion — an ion carrying a negative charge.

annealing — the process of heating a metal or alloy to some predetermined temperature below its melting point, maintaining that temperature for a time, and then cooling slowly. Annealing generally confers softness.

anode — the positive electrode of an electrolytic cell, towards which negative particles (anions), usually in solution, are attracted.

anthracite — a very hard type of coal which burns slowly and gives out a lot of heat.

atomic — using the energy that comes from breaking up atoms (the smallest piece of a material).

B

babbitt — metal (after Isaac Babbitt, 1799—1862, US inventor) — a soft alloy of tin, copper and antimony in various proportions, used to reduce friction in bearings, etc.

bar — a solid section long in relation to its cross sectional dimensions, having a symmetrical cross section which is square, rectangular, hexagonal, or octagonal with sharp or rounded corners or edges and whose width or greatest distance between parallel faces is 10 mm or greater.

battery — a box which produces electricity.

bauxite — the principal ore of aluminium, consisting of a mixture of hydrated aluminium oxides and hydroxides, generally contaminated with compounds of iron, which give it a red colour. It is formed by the chemical weathering of rocks in tropical climates.

beam — a line of light or heat.

bellows — a device that produces a stream of air through a narrow tube when its sides are pressed together: used for blowing fires.

billet — a small unfinished bar of iron or steel, or another metal, usually less than 25 sq.in. (150 cm²) in cross section.

blast furnace — a tall furnace with a strong blast of air blowing through it from bottom to top, used in making iron from ore.

blister copper — copper that is 96 to 99 percent pure, produced by smelting. It has a blistery surface caused by sulfur dioxide bub­bles.

blister steel — steel made by the old cementation process. Its surface was covered with blisters.

bloom — (1) a spongy mass of wrought iron ready for further working; (2) a thick bar of iron or steel obtained by rolling or hammering an ingot.

bronze — an alloy of copper and tin, which is much harder than either.

breaking down — the first stage in the shaping of an ingot of metal, with the object of reducing its section and refining its grain structure.

bullion — (1) gold and silver regarded as raw material; (2) ingots of gold or silver; (3) a stick, bar.

C

cable — a strong rope, made of thin pieces of metal, which carries electricity.

carbide — the compound formed when an element combines with carbon. The carbides of metals are usually intensely hard.

carbon — a chemical element added to iron to make cast iron and steel; the basis of all living matter, and therefore of fuels such as wood, coal and oil.

carbon monoxide — a poisonous gas (CO).

cast iron — iron containing more than 2 percent of carbon; it is hard and brittle.

cathode — the negative electrode of an electrolytic cell, towards which positive particles (cations), usually in solution, are attracted.

cation — an ion carrying a positive charge.

cementation — the process of making steel by heating wrought iron with charcoal.

cementite — the name given to identify one constituent in iron-carbon alloys. Cementite is essentially iron carbide, Fe₃C, but may contain other substances such as manganese and chromi­um, carbides of which are dissolved in the iron carbide and do not appear separately.

charcoal — an amorphous form of carbon produced by partially burning or oxidizing wood or other organic matter in large kilns from which air is excluded. It is used as a fuel.

chill — a cooled iron mould placed in contact with that part of a casting which is to be cooled rapidly and thus hardened on the surface.

chilling — hardening metal on the surface by rapid cooling.

chloride — a compound in which chlorine is combined with another element or radical.

circuit — a circular path of electricity.

clarification — a process of making a solution clear and free from

impurities.

coke — coal that has been heated in a closed furnace so that it

contains about 80 percent of carbon.

combustion — rapid oxidation accompanied by heat and, usually, light.

conductivity (electrical or thermal) — the measure of the ability of a substance to allow the passage of electricity or heat. Copper is an example of a good conductor, rubber of a bad one.

converter — a furnace used to produce steel by flowing air or oxygen through molten pig iron.

core — a specially fashioned piece of sand or metal used to form the hollow part of a casting. To make a cylindrical hole in a casting, a cylindrical solid core of a similar shape is used.

crucible — a container made of graphite or other substance that can resist great heat, for melting, fusing, or calcining ores and metals.

crucible steel — high quality steel produced by heating blister steel or wrought iron and charcoal in a small vessel or crucible.

cryolite — colourless to white halide mineral (Na₃AlF₆). It is used as a solvent for bauxite in the electrolytic production of aluminium and has various other metallurgical applications. A large amount of synthetic cryolite is made from fluorite.

cupola — a small furnace for melting metals.

cupola furnace — a small furnace for melting pig iron so that it can be made into castings.

cutler — a man who makes cutlery-knives, forks and spoons.

cyanidation — a process of extracting gold or silver from low-grade ores by treating them with a solution of sodium cyanide or potassium cyanide and then recovering gold or silver by electrolysis.

D

decomposition — a process of breaking up or separating into basic components or parts.

detonator — a piece of equipment used to explode things.

die — a metallic or another permanent form which confers a given shape on a piece of metal.

digester — a heavy metal container in which substances are heated or cooked to extract soluble elements from them.

digestion — a process of extracting soluble elements from substances by heating or cooking them.

dioxide — an oxide containing two atoms of oxygen per molecule.

direct current — an electric current flowing in one direction.

dot — a small, round shape, a different colour from the surround­ing area.

dross — (1) a scum formed on the surface of molten metal (gold); (2) waste matte.

ductile — a ductile material is one that can be stretched, com­pressed, bent or twisted a lot before it will break; the opposite of brittle.

ductility — the property of a metal which enables it to be given a considerable amount of mechanical deformation (especially stretching) without cracking.

E

electrode — a conductor which conveys electric current directly into the body of an electric furnace, or other electrical apparatus.

electrolysis — a process involving chemical change, caused by the passage of an electric current through a fluid solution.

electrolytes — ionic compounds such as salts, acids, alkalis, and metal oxides which, in solution or in the molten state, conduct electricity.

electron — elementary negatively charged particle having a mass about 1/1840 that of a hydrogen atom.

evaporation — changing a liquid or solid into vapour; removing moisture from solutions by heating or drying to get a concen­trated product.

F

finery — the furnace in which cast iron is changed into wrought iron.

firesetting — cracking rocks by heating them and then throwing cold water on them.

fissure — a long, narrow, deep cleft or crack; dividing or breaking into parts.

flask — the frame for a mould of sand in a foundry.

flesh (n) — a sudden bright light.

flesh (v) — to shine brightly for a moment.

fluoride — a compound of fluorine and one or more elements or radicals.

flux — a chemical, used to combine with a substance having a high melting point, generally an oxide, forming a new compound which can readily be melted.

forge — the workshop of a smith.

forging — (1) producing wrought iron from cast iron by heating and hammering it; (2) shaping a metal object in the same way; (3) an object produced like this.

foundry — a workshop where castings are made.

fuming — a slag sublimation process in the lead production.

fusibility — an ability to be easily melted.

G

gate — a channel through which molten metal is poured into a mould.

geologist — a scientist who studies the earth and the rocks of which it is made.

grinding — crushing into bits or fine particles between two hard surfaces.

H

hearth — the lowest part of a blast furnace on which the molten metal and slag are deposited.

hydrolysis — a chemical reaction in which a compound reacts with the ions of water (H⁺ and OH) to produce a weak acid, a weak base, or both.

hydroxide — a compound consisting of an element or radical combined with hydroxyl radical (OH).

I

inclusion — a non-metallic particle of slag, oxide or other chemical compound which has become entangled in metal during its manufacture.

induction — the processs of producing an electric current in a piece of metal by passing a current through another piece of metal near it.

ingot — a block of metal made by casting the liquid metallic contents of a furnace or crucible into open metallic moulds.

ion — an atom, or a group of atoms, that is either positively charged (cation) or negatively charged (anion), as a result of the loss or gain of electrons during chemical reactions or exposure to certain forms of radiation.

K

kiln — a furnace or oven for drying, burning, or baking something, as bricks, grain, or pottery.

L

leaching — a process of washing out oxides with water or acid. This process is used to obtain solutions to be separated and sent to precipitation.

lime — a white substance, calcium oxide, CaO, obtained by the action of heat on limestone, shells, and other material containing calcium carbonate.

limestone — sedimentary rock composed chiefly of calcium carbon­ate (CaC0₃).

line — to put a layer of a heat resisting material on the inside of a furnace or other metal working facilities.

lining — a layer of a heat resisting material on the inside of a furnace or other metal working facilities.

M

machining — producing an object by cutting metal with a suitable tool.

magnesium — a very light metal which burns with a fierce white flame.

malleability — a proper of metals enabling them to be hammered and beaten into forms such as that of thin sheets, without cracking. Gold is the most malleable of all metals.

matte — an impure mixture of sulfides that is produced in smelting the sulfide ores of copper, nickel, lead, etc.

megawatt — one million watts; one thousand kilowatts.

melting point — the temperature at which a specified metal be­comes liquid.

metal — any of a class of chemical elements, as iron, gold, aluminium, etc., generally characterized by ductility, malleability, luster, and conductivity of heat and electricity. These elements act as cations in chemical reactions, form bases with the hydroxyl radical, and can replace the hydrogen of an acid to form a salt.

metallography — the study, observation, and photographing of the structure of prepared specimens of metals, usually with the aid of a microscope. From such a study, much can be learnt about the condition, heat-treatment, and manufacturing history of metals.

metalloid (semi-metal) — an element which has some properties characteristic of metals, others of non-metals. Examples are arsenic and antimony.

metallurgy — the art and science of producing metals and their alloying, fabricating, and heat-treatment.

meteorite — a piece of material from outer space which falls into the Earth's atmosphere. Meteorites often burn up completely before reaching the surface of the Earth.

mild steel — steel containing only 0.1 to 0.25 percent of carbon. It is very ductile and easy to machine.

mine (n) — a deep hole or tunnel in the ground from which valuable stones or rocks are dug.

mine (v) — to dig, or get valuable stones or rocks from a mine.

mining — a branch of industry and science concerned with the search for and extraction of minerals from the Earth's crust.

mold — a pattern, hollow form or matrix for giving a certain form to something in a plastic or molten state; model.

monoxide — an oxide with one atom of oxygen in each molecule.

mould — the carefully shaped hole into which molten metal is poured to produce a casting.

moulder — a craftsman who makes moulds and castings.

O

ore — any natural combination of minerals, especially one from which a metal or metals can be profitably extracted.

oxide — a chemical compound formed when an element unites with oxygen, as by the action of burning.

oxygen — a gas in the air, necessary for life.

P

parting — a process of separating gold and silver from each other.

pattern — the full-scale model used in making a sand mold for casting metal.

Periodic table — a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements showing a periodic recurrence of properties in juxtaposition.

phosphorus — a chemical element, so flammable that it has to be kept under water. It is very poisonous and glows in the dark.

photoelectric — using electricity produced by photocells.

photocell — something which makes electricity from sunlight.

photocell bank — a group of photocells.

pig iron — crude iron as produced from the blast furnace and containing carbon, silicon, and other impurities.

powder metallurgy — the science or process of working metals and alloys by reducing them to powder and shaping this into solids under great heat and pressure.

precipitation — a process of making a soluble substance become insoluble, as by heat or a chemical reagent and separating out from a solution.

puddling — making wrought iron from cast iron by stirring it in a reverberatory furnace.

Q

quenching — cooling red-hot metal quickly by plunging it into water or oil. This hardens it.

R

radiation — energy moving as waves of very small pieces of light or heat which cannot be seen.

rare-earth metals — a group of rare metallic chemical elements with consecutive atomic numbers of 57 to 71 inclusive: also rare-earth elements.

refining — a process of removing impurities from metals.

refining (of steel) — a process of burning off excess carbon and such impurities as silicon, manganese and phosphorus, which separate from the molten steel as gases or as molten slag.

refractories — firebricks or other heat-resisting materials used for lining furnaces and retaining the heat without allowing the outer shell of the furnace to be damaged. Refractories are grouped into 'acid', 'basic', and 'neutral' according to their composition and their action on the hot substances with which they come into contact in the furnace.

reinforced concrete — concrete containing steel bars or mesh to strengthen it.

residue — the matter remaining at the end of the process, as after evaporation, combustion, filtration, etc.

reverberatory furnace — one in which the heat of the fire is reflected back from a curved roof onto the metal, which is kept separate from the fire.

robotics — the study of making and using robots.

rod — a solid round section 10 mm or greater in diameter whose length is great in relation to its diameter.

rolling — a hot or cold metalworking process to form the metal from an ingot to a sheet or bar.

rolling mill — a machine for making metal bars thinner by passing them between two rollers turning in opposite directions.

S

saturated solution — a solution containing so much dissolved sub­stance that no more can be dissolved at the given temperature.

saturation — dissolving the maximum amount of a substance in a solution at a given temperature and pressure.

scrap — worn-out metal articles which can be remelted to make hew metal.

seed — a tiny crystal or other particle which is added to a solution or liquid to start crystallization.

semi-conductors — materials which at room temperature have much lower electrical conductivities than metals, but whose conductivities increase substantially with increase of temperature. This is in contrast with the electrical behaviour of metals, whose conductivities decrease slightly with increase of temperature.

shear steel — hand-made steel good enough for making shears, razors and other cutting instruments.

shearing machine — a machine with a long blade for cutting up sheets of metal.

silica — the dioxide of silicon, Si0₂, a hard, glassy mineral found in a variety of forms.

silicon — a very common element, found in sand, clay, and rocks. Microchips used in computers are often made of silicon.

sintering — a process of bonding mass of metal particles shaped and partially fused by pressure and heating below the melting point.

slag — a glass-like compound of comparatively low melting point, formed during smelting when earthy matter contained in an ore is acted on by a flux. The fusibility and comparatively low density of the slag provides a means by which it may be separated from the liquid metal.

slitting mill — a machine for cutting metal sheet into strips.

slurry — a thin, watery mixture of a fine insoluble material, as clay, soil, etc.

smelting — the operation by which a metallic ore is changed into metal by the use of heat and chemical energy.

smith — a worker in metal.

solution — the intermingling of one substance with another in so intimate a manner that they are dispersed uniformly among each other and cannot be separated by mechanical means.

steel — iron containing between 0.1 and 2 percent of carbon; stronger than wrought iron, and more ductile than cast iron.

strain — a measure of the amount of deformation produced in a substance when it is stressed.

stress — a measure of the intensity of load applied to a material. Stress is expressed as the load devided by the cross-sectional area over which it is applied.

sulphur — a yellow element which burns with a pungent smell and is used in making fireworks and sulphuric acid.

T

tapping — the controlled removal of liquid metal or slag from a furnace.

tempering — a warming process intended to alter the hardness of a metal which has already been subjected to heat-treatment. The tempering temperature is lower than that at which the first heat-treatment was carried out.

thickener — a device intended to make a solution thicker in density, consistency.

three-high mill — a rolling mill with three rollers. The bars are passed one way between the lower pair and back again through the upper pair.

tilt hammer — a hammer which is lifted by a cog on a wheel and then falls by gravity.

tuyere — the pipe or nozzle through which air is forced into a blast furnace or into a cupola.

V

vibration — a small, shaking movement.

voltage — electromotive force, or difference in electrical potential expressed in volts.

W

welding — joining pieces of metal together by melting the edges and allowing extra molten metal to fill the gap.

wrought iron — more or less pure iron, hardened slightly by heating and hammering, now used mostly for ornamental gates."Wrought" means "worked".

VOCABULARY

A, a

abandon (v) - отказываться, оставлять

aberration (n) – отклонение от стандарта

ability (n) – способность

able (adj.) – способный

abradant (adj.) – абразивный материал

abrade (v) – обдирать

abundant (adj) – обильный, богатый

accept (v) – получать

acid (n) - кислота

affinity (n) – сродство

alloy (n) – сплав; ~ steel – легированная сталь

alumin/a (n) – окись алюминия; глинозем; ~ium – алюминий; ~ous shales - глиноземистый

alunite [´æljύnait] (n) – алунит, квасцовый камень

ammonia (мн. ч. от ammonium) – аммоний

ammonium polysulphide (n) – полисульфид аммония

amount (n) – количество

annealing (n) – отжиг, отпуск

anorthosite (n) - анортозит

apatite (n) - апатит

application (n) – применение

arrangement (n) - расположение

attention (n) – внимание

attractive (adj.) – привлекательный

automotive catalytic converter – автоматический каталитический конвертер

B, b

bar (n) – полоса (железа)

the basis electrolytic process – основной электролитический процесс

bauxite [´bəύzait] (n) – боксит, алюминиевая руда

be (was, were, been) – быть; ~ depleted – истощать; ~ in use – применяться; ~ exploited – разрабатывать; ~ exposed to weather – находиться на открытом воздухе; ~ readily identified - легко обнаружить; ~ roasted – обжигаться; ~ suitable for - годится для; ~ used for making repairs – использоваться при ремонте

bent (pp of bend) (v) - гнуть

Bessemer process – бессемеровский процесс

bismuth (n) – висмут

blast-furnace (n) – доменная печь

boehmite (n) - бёрмит

Bosnia (n) – Босния

bottom (n) – пол (печи)

brass (n) – латунь

breaking (n) – поломка

brittle (adj.) - хрупкий

bullion (n) – слиток (золота или серебра)

C, c

cable sheath (n) – оболочка кабеля

can (n) – консервная банка

calcium (n) – кальций

(the) Caribbean islands (n) - Карибские острова

carbon (n) – углерод; ~ content – содержание углерода; ~ monoxide – окись углерода; ~ steel – углеродистая сталь; ~ate – карбонат

casing (n) - кожух

cast (v) – отливать, отлить; ~ iron – чугун; ~ing – литье, отливка

catalyst (n) – катализатор

chemical attack – химическая атака

chloride (n) – хлор

chromium (n) - хром

clay (n) - глина

coal gas – угольный газ

coke (n) - кокс

composition (n) - состав

conductivity (n) - проводимость

conductor (n) – проводник; poor ~ – плохой проводник

corrode (v) – подвергаться коррозии

creep (n) - ползучесть

Croatia (n) - Хорватия

crown jewels (n) – драгоценности из королевской казны

crucible (n) – тигель

crust (n) - кора

coarse (adj) – грубый, крупный

compression (n) - сжатие

conductivity (n) – проводимость

copper (n) – медь

corrosion (n) – коррозия

cutlery (n) – ножевые изделия

cupro-nickel (n) – мельхиор

D, d

dawsonite [´do׃sənait] (n) – даусонит

dens/e (adj) – плотный; ~ity (n) – плотность

dental (adj) – зубной

depend of (v) – зависеть

deplete (n) - истощать, исчерпывать

deposit (n) - месторождение

detect (v) – обнаруживать

dilute acid – разбавленная кислота

dioxide (n) – диоксид

dissolve (v) – растворять

distinction (n) – различие

drainage (n) - дренаж

ductil/e (adj.) – пластичный; ~ity (n) – ковкость

durable (adj) – прочный

E, e

earthy (adj) – земляной; ~ matter – земляное покрытие

electric (adj) – электрический; ~ arc – электрическая дуга; ~ current – электрическая цепь; ~ contact – электрический контакт; electrochemical series – электрохимический ряд

electrode (n) – электрод

electrolysis (n) - электролиз

encourage (n) - поддерживать

environment (n) – окружающая среда

in exchange for goods and services – обменивать на товары и услуги

exhibition (n) – выставка

extruction (n) - экструзия

F, f

failure (n) – повреждение, разрушение

fed continuously - непрерывно подаются

ferrous metals – черные металлы

finished product – конечный продукт

firebrick (n) – огнеупор

for killing fungi – для уничтожения плесени

in form of – в форме

fracture (v) - ломать

free metallic state – свободное металлическое состояние

fuse wire – предохранитель

fusible metal – легкоплавкий металл

G, g

gibbsite (n) – гиббсит (AlH₂O₃ )

grain (n) – зерно

grinder (n) – шлифовальный станок

groove (n) - шахта, рудник

H, h

hammer (v) - ковать

hardness (n) – твердость, прочность

heat treatment (n) – термообработка

Herzegovina (n) - Герцеговина

high - denomination currency – высоко деноминационная валюта

high-grade (n) - высокосодержащий

high melting point – высокая точка плавления

higher oxide – высший окисел

hydrogen (n) – водород

hydrogen sulphides – сероводород

hydroxide (n) - гидроксид

hygroscopic (adj) – гигроскопический

I, i

igneous [´igniəs] rock (n) – вулканическая порода

indestructible (adj) – не поддающийся разрушению

Indonesia (n) - Индонезия

indispensable (adj) – необходимый

iridium (n) – иридий

iron (n) – железо

iron ore (n) – железная руда

J, j

jewelry (adj) – ювелирный

K, k

kaolinite (n) - каолинит

Kazak(h)stan (n) – Казахстан

keep (kept, kept) (v) – держать, удерживать, сохранять

kind (n) - вид

L, l

lacquer (v) – лакировать

laterite (n) - латерит

lathe (n) – токарный станок

lead (n) – свинец; ~ carbonate (n) – свинцовые белила; ~ shot – свинцовая дробь; ~ tetra-ethyl – тетратил свинца

lightweight (adj) - легкий

limestone (n) - известняк

lining (n) - облицовка

linseed oil (n) – льняное масло

litharge (n) – глет (окись свинца)

low strength – небольшая (низкая) прочность

luster (n) – блеск

M, m

machinability (n) – обрабатываемость (на станке)

magnesium (n) – магний

Malaysia (n) - Малайзия

malleable (adj.) – ковкий

malleability (n) – вязкость

medium (adj.) – средний

mean (n) - способ

melt (v) – плавить, плавиться, расплавить

metal fatigue – усталость металла

metallic (adj.) – металлический

metallurgy (n) - металлургия

milling machine (n) – фрезерный станок

moderately hard – сравнительно твердый

molten iron (n) – (расплавленное) железо

molted state – жидкое (растопленное) состояние

Montenegro (n) - Черногория

mould (n) – форма

N, n

native state – природное состояние

naturally occurring minerals – ископаемые минералы

in nature – в природе

nepheline [´nəfilin] (n) – нефелит

next to – по соседству

nitric acid (n) – азотная кислота

nonferrous metal – цветной металл

notably (adv) – значительно

O, o

obliterate (v) - уничтожать

occur (v) – встречаться

open-hearth process (n) – выплавка стали в мартеновских печах

ore (n) – руда

osmium (n) – осмий

outbreaks of fire – пожар

oxide (n) – оксид

oxygen (n) - кислород

P, p

palladium (n)– палладий

payment (n) – платеж

petrol (n) – бензин

petroleum refining – очищение бензина

plate (n) – плита, пласт

platinum (n) – платина

pinhead (n) – булавочная головка

pig iron (n) - чугун

poisonous constituent – ядовитый компонент

potassium (n) – калий

precious (adj) – драгоценный

press into shape – прессоваться в форме

prevent it being exploded by – чтобы предупредить взрыв

priming paint (n) – грунтовка

property (n) – свойство

finished product – конечный продукт

produce (v) - производить

protect … from (n) – защищать от

pure form – чистая форма

purity (n) - чистота

Q, q

quality (n) - качество

quantity (n) – количество

quenching (n) - закалка

quicklime (n) – гашенная известь

R, r

railway track (n) – железнодорожный путь

raw material (n) - сырье

razor blade (n) – лезвие

readily obliterates the previous colour – легко уничтожает предыдущий слой

red lead (n) – красный свинец

reduce (v) – восстанавливать

reduction (n) - восстановление

regularly (adv) – регулярно, правильно

residue (n) – осадок

resin (n) – смола

resistance (n) – сопротивление; ~ to wear – износостойкость

resistivity (n) – сопротивляемость

rhodium (n) – родий

rivet (v) -клепать

rock (n) - скала

rolling (n) - прокатка

rupture (n) – разрыв

rust-resistant (adj) – нержавеющий

ruthenium (n) – рутений

S, s

saprolite [´sæprəlait] (n) – сапролит

scientist (n) – ученый

selenium (n) – селений

separate (v)- отделать

separation (n) - разделение, отстояние

shape (n, v) – форма, формировать

shell (n) - кожух

shellac (n) – шеллак

sillimanite [´silimənait] mineral – силлиманитный минерал

silicon (n) – кремний

sillimanite (n) - силлиманит

silvery-white (adj) - светло-серый

simultaneously (adv) - одновременно

size (n)– размер, величина

slag (n) - шлак

slide (v) - скользить

sodium (n) – сода

solid state – твердое состояние

solution (n) - раствор

soothing effect – успокаивающее действие

sprinkler (n) – спринклер

steel (n) - сталь

storage battery (n) – аккумуляторная батарея

strength (n) – прочность, жесткость

stress (n) – давление, напряжение

subject (v) – подвергаться

substance (n)– вещество

substantial reserves – существенные запасы

sulphide (n)– окись серы

sulphur (n) - сера

surgical pin (n) – хирургическая игла

syenite [´saiinait] (n) – сиенит

T, t

tarnish (v) – тускнеть

tellurium (n) – таллий

tempering (n) – отпуск (стали), нормализация

tension (n) – растяжение

tin (n) – олово

tough(ness) (adj, n)– жесткий, жесткость

treatment (n) - обработка

turn (v) – поворачивать; ~ out - выпускать (изделия); ~ on lathe – обтачивать на станке

tuyere (n) – фурма

type metal – типографский металл

U, u

undergo (v) - подвергаться

universally (adj) – универсальный

upon exposure to air – на воздухе

V, v

vessel (n) – сосуд, котел, судно

virtual (adj.) – фактический

W, w

water-cooled (adj) - водоохлаждаемый

wear (v) – изнашиваться; ~ well – мало изнашиваться

well (n) – колодец

wire (n) - проволока

withstand (v) - выдерживать

work out (v) - разрабатывать

Y, y

yellowish – желтоватый

yield – производить

ytterbium – иттербий

yttrium - иттрий

Z, z

zinc – цинк

zirconium - цирконий

REFERENCES

1. Агабекян И.П. Английский для технических вузов/ И.П. Агабекян, П.И. Ковалева. Изд. 9-е. – Ростовн/Д: Феникс, 2007. – 349 с .

2. Айзенкоп С.М., Багадасарова Л.В., Васина Н.С., Глущенко И.Н. Научно-технический перевод. Английский язык. Для школ и лицеев. Изд. 4-е, исправленное и дополненное.- Ростов н/Д: Феникс, 2008. - 352 с.

3. Галевский Г.В. English for Students of Metallurgy. Английский для студентов металлургических специальностей : Учебное пособие/ Г.В. Галевский, Е.Г. Макарычева, М. Я. Минцис, В.Е. Тарасенко. Изд. 2-е, исправленное и дополненное.– М.: Флинта: Наука, 2009. – 342 с.

4. Кабо П.Д., Фомичева С.Н. Сборник научно-популярных статей. Книга для чтения на английском языке в 10 классе средней школы. – Москва: Просвещение, 2006. – 143 с.

5. Удачина Н.А., Кочнев Д.В. Англо-русский словарь по обогащению полезных ископаемых. Методическая разработка по английскому языку для студентов, магистратов и аспирантов специальности 130405 – “Обогащение полезных ископаемых” (ОПИ) – Екатеринбург, 2006. – 64 с.

Content

Аннотация 2

CHAPTER 1. Key Information about Metals 2

A 2

METALS AND NONMETALS 2

METALS 2

ORES 2

B 2

METALS 2

ORES 2

CHAPTER 2. Iron 2

A 2

IRON AND OTHER METALS 2

B 2

IRON AND IRON ORES 2

A 2

FERROUS METALS AND STEELS 2

B 2

STEEL 2

CHAPTER 4. Non-ferrous metals 2

A 2

NON-FERROUS METALS 2

THE HISTORY OF ALUMINIUM’S DISCOVERY 2

BAUXITE 2

B 2

ALUMINIUM AND THE HISTORY OF ITS DISCOVERY 2

BAUXITE 2

CHAPTER 5. Copper 2

A 2

COPPER 2

B 2

OCCURENCE, USES AND PROPERTIES OF COPPER 2

CHAPTER 6. Nickel 2

A 2

NICKEL 2

B 2

NICKEL ORES 2

CHAPTER 7. Lead 2

A 2

LEAD 2

B 2

LEAD 2

CHAPTER 8. Zink 2

A 2

Zink 2

B 2

Zink 2

CHAPTER 9. Platinum group metals 2

A 2

GOLD 2

PLATINUM (Pt) 2

B 2

PLATINUM GROUP METALS 2

CHAPTER 10. Rare-Earth Elements 2

A, B 2

RARE-EARTH ELEMENTS 2

MOLYBDENUM PROCESSING 2

TUNGSTEN 2

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 2

GLOSSARY 2

A 2

B 2

C 2

D 2

E 2

F 2

G 2

H 2

I 2

K 2

L 2

M 2

O 2

P 2

Q 2

R 2

S 2

T 2

V 2

W 2

VOCABULARY 2

A, a 2

B, b 2

C, c 2

D, d 2

E, e 2

F, f 2

G, g 2

H, h 2

I, i 2

J, j 2

K, k 2

L, l 2

M, m 2

N, n 2

O, o 2

P, p 2

Q, q 2

R, r 2

S, s 2

T, t 2

U, u 2

V, v 2

W, w 2

Y, y 2

Z, z 2

REFERENCES 2

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