Методическое пособие для мехатроников

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНСТВО ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ



ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ ИНСТИТУТ (филиал)

Государственного образовательного учреждения высшего профессионального образования

«Московский инженерно-физический институт (государственный университет)»

(г. Лесной)

КАФЕДРА

ИНОСТРАННЫХ ЯЗЫКОВ

И.В. ПЛЮХИНА

УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКОЕ ПОСОБИЕ

по дисциплине

«ИНОСТРАННЫЙ ЯЗЫК»

для студентов специальности «Управление и информатика в технических системах» очно-заочной формы обучения.

Утверждено на заседании кафедры

14 января 2008 г.

Лесной 2008И.В. Плюхина. Учебно-методическое пособие. Часть Ш – Свердловская область,

г. Лесной, 2008. – 30 с.

Пособие предназначено для студентов II курса, обучающихся по специальности 220201 «Управление и информатика в технических системах». Оно состоит из 5 циклов, построенных по единому принципу, которые содержат основной текст, грамматические и лексические упражнения, задания для активизации навыков устной речи, а также дополнительные тексты для ознакомительного и просмотрового чтения.

ã Технологический институт (филиал) Государственного образовательного учреждения высшего профессионального образования

«Московский инженерно-физический институт (государственный университет)»

(г. Лесной)

UNIT 1.

AUTOMATION AND TYPES OF AUTOMATION.

Text A. AUTOMATION.

Automation is the system of manufacture perform­ing certain tasks, previously done by people, by machines only. The sequences of operations are controlled auto­matically. The most familiar example of a highly auto­mated system is an assembly plant for automobiles or other complex products.

The term automation is also used to describe nonmanufacturing systems in which automatic devices can op­erate independently of human control. Such devices as automatic pilots, automatic telephone equipment and automated control systems are used to perform various operations much faster and better than could be done by people.

Automated manufacturing had several steps in its development. Mechanization was the first step necessary in the development of automation. The simplification of work made it possible to design and build machines that resembled the motions of the worker. These specialized machines were motorized and they had better production efficiency.

Industrial robots, originally designed only to perform simple tasks in environments dangerous to human work­ers, are now widely used to transfer, manipulate, and position both light and heavy workpieces performing all the functions of a transfer machine.

In the 1920s the automobile industry for the first time used an integrated system of production. This method of production was adopted by most car manufacturers and became known as Detroit automation.

The feedback principle is used in all automatic-con­trol mechanisms when machines have ability to correct themselves. The feedback principle has been used for centuries. An outstanding early example is the flyball governor, invented in 1788 by James Watt to control the speed of the steam engine. The common household ther­mostat is another example of a feedback device.

Using feedback devices, machines can start, stop, speed up, slow down, count, inspect, test, compare, and measure. These operations are commonly applied to a wide variety of production operations.

Computers have greatly facilitated the use of feedback in manufacturing processes. Computers gave rise to the development of numerically controlled machines. The motions of these machines are controlled by punched paper or magnetic tapes. In numerically controlled ma­chining centers machine tools can perform several dif­ferent machining operations.

More recently, the introduction of microprocessors and computers have made possible the development of computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacture (CAD and CAM) technologies. When using these systems a designer draws a part and indicates its dimensions with the help of a mouse, light pen, or other input device. Af­ter the drawing has been completed the computer automatically gives the instructions that direct a machining centre to machine the part.

Another development using automation is the flex­ible manufacturing systems (FMS). A computer in FMS can be used to monitor and control the operation of the whole factory.

Automation has also had an influence on the areas of the economy other than manufacturing. Small comput­ers are used in systems called word processors, which are rapidly becoming a standard part of the modern office. They are used to edit texts, to type letters and so on.

Automation in Industry

Many industries are highly automated or use automa­tion technology in some part of their operation. In com­munications and especially in the telephone industry dialing and transmission are all done automatically. Rail­ways are also controlled by automatic signaling devices, which have sensors that detect carriages passing a par­ticular point. In this way the movement and location of trains can be monitored.

Not all industries require the same degree of automa­tion. Sales, agriculture, and some service industries are difficult to automate, though agriculture industry may become more mechanized, especially in the processing and packaging of foods.

The automation technology in manufacturing and as­sembly is widely used in car and other consumer product industries.

Nevertheless, each industry has its own concept of automation that answers its particular production needs.

Vocabulary:

automation —автоматизация

previously — ранее

sequence — последовательность

assembly plant —сборочный завод

nonmanufacturing — непроизводственный

device — устройство, прибор

resemble — походить

efficiency — эффективность

flyball governor — центробежный регулятор

steam engine — паровоз

household thermostat — бытовой термостат

facilitate — способствовать

punched — перфорированный

aid — помощь

dimension — измерение, размеры

Exercise 1. General understanding:

1. How is the term automation defined in the text?

2. What is the most «familiar example» of automation given in the text?

3. What was the first step in the development of automaton?

4. What were the first robots originally designed for?

5. What was the first industry to adopt the new integrated system of production?

6. What is feedback principle?

7. What do the abbreviations CAM and CAD stand for?

8. What is FMS?

9. What industries use automation technologies?

Exercise 2. Find the following words and word combinations in the text:

1. автоматические устройства

2. автоматизированное производство

3. выполнять простые задачи

4. как легкие, так и тяжелые детали

5. интегрированная система производства

6. принцип обратной связи

7. механизм может разгоняться и тормозить

8. компьютер автоматически посылает команды

9. высокоавтоматизированная система

10. непроизводственная система

Text B. INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND AUTOMATION.

A major advance in twentieth century manufacturing was the development of mass production techniques. Mass production refers to manufacturing processes in which an assembly line, usually a conveyer belt, moves the product to stations where each worker performs a limited number of operations until the product is assembled. In the automobile assembly plant such systems have reached a highly-developed form. A complex system of conveyer belts and chain drives moves car parts to workers who perform the thousands of necessary assembling tasks.

Mass production increases efficiency and productivity; to a point beyond which the monotony of repeating an operation over and over slows down the^-workers. Man ways have been tried to increase productivity on assembly lines: some of them are as superficial as piping music into the plant or painting the industrial apparatus in bright colors; others entail giving workers more variety in their tasks and more responsibility for the product.

These human factors are important considerations for industrial engineers who must try to balance an efficient system of manufacturing with the complex needs of workers.

Another factor for the industrial engineer to consider is whether each manufacturing process can be automated in whole or in part. Automation is a word coined in t 1940s to describe processes by which machines do tasks previously performed by people. The word was new b the idea was not. We know of the advance in the development of steam engines that produced automatic valves. Long before that, during the Middle Ages, windmills h been made to turn by taking advantage of changes the wind by means of devices that worked automatically.

Automation was first applied to industry in continuous-process manufacturing such as refining petroleum making petrochemicals, and refining steel. A later development was computer-controlled automation assembly line manufacturing, especially those in which quality was an important factor.

Exercise 1. Расположите слова списка (а) в алфавитном порядке. Найдите по словарю их перевод. Переведите словосочетания списка (b).

1. production, belt, line, engineer, process, manufacturing, automation;

2. mass production, conveyer belt, assembly line, industrial engineer, manufacturing process, continuous-process manufacturing, assembly line manufacturing, computer-controlled automation.

Exercise 2.Прочитайте текст ещё раз и найдите в нём словосочетания, равнозначные по значению следующим.

1. …manufacturing of large quantities of similar products with each worker in the plant performing only a limited number of operations on the product…

2. …an arrangement of equipment, machines and workers so that work passes in line until the product is assembled…

3. … the process of operating and controlling mechanical devices by automatic means without action by human beings….

Exercise 3.Определите, какие из приводимых парных высказываний соответствуют содержанию текста.

a) 1. Mass production referred to manufacturing pro­cesses with an assembly line. 2. Mass production refers to manufacturing processes with an assembly line.

b) 1. Automated processes do tasks which have been performed by people. 2. Automated processes do tasks which were performed by people.

c) 1. Automation was first applied to assembly line manufacturing, then to continuous-process manufactur­ing such as refining steel. 2. Assembly line manufacturing was a later development of industrial automation.

Exercise 4. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. What is a major development in manufacturing in the twentieth century? 2. How is mass production often exemplified by the assembly of automobiles? 3. Discuss efficiency and productivity in mass production. 4. De­scribe some experiments to increase productivity on
assembly lines. 5. When and why was the word "automa­tion" coined? 6. Give some examples of automation that were in use before the word itself was created. 7. To what kinds of industries was automation first applied? 8. What was a later development in industrial automation?

Text C.

Exercise 1.Прочитайте текст и определите, что составляет основные части автоматической системы.

Exercise 2.Озаглавьте текст.

We now use the term automation for specific tech­niques combined to operate automatically in a complete system. These techniques are possible because of electron­ic devices, most of which have come into use in the last thirty years. They include program, action, sensing or feedback, decision, and control elements as components of a complete system.

The program elements determine what the system does and the step-by-step manner in which it works to produce the desired result. A program is a step-by-step sequence that breaks a task into its individual parts. Some steps in an industrial automation program direct other parts of the system when and how to carry out their jobs.

The action elements are those which do the actual work. They may carry or convey materials to specific plac­es at specific times or they may perform operations on the materials. The term mechanical handling device is also used for the action elements.

Perhaps the most important part of an automated sy­stem is sensing or feedback. Sensing devices automatical­ly check on parts of the manufacturing process such as the thickness of a sheet of steel or paper. This is called feedback because the instruments return or feed back this information to the central system control.

The decision element is used to compare what is going on in the system with what should be going on; it receives information from the sensing devices and makes decisions necessary to maintain the system correctly. If some action is necessary the decision element can give instructions or commands to the system.

The control element consists of devices to carry out the commands of the decision element. They may be many kinds of devices: valves that open or close, switches that control the flow of electricity, or regulators that change the voltage in various machines; they make the necessary corrections or adjustments to keep the system in conform­ity with its program.

An industrial engineer working with automated sys­tems is part of a team. Many components of the system, such as computers, are electronic devices so electronic engineers and technicians are also involved. Many of the industries in which automation has proved particularly suitable — chemicals, papermaking, metals processing— involve chemical processes, so there may be chemical en­gineers at work too. An industrial engineer with expertise in all these fields may become a systems engineer for automation projects thereby coordinating the activities of all the members of the team.

Exercise 3.Ответьте на следующие вопросы.

1. What are some elements of an automated system? 2. What is a program? What does it do in an automated system? 3. Name two terms used to describe the elements which do the actual work. What are some jobs these elements may do? 4. What are some of the things sensing devices do? 5. How do sensing devices act on the information they receive? Why the process is sometimes called feedback? 6. What is the func­tion of the decision element? What can it do? 7. What does the control element consist of? What can these devices do? What is their purpose?

Text D. TYPES OF AUTOMATION.

Applications of Automation and Robotics in Industry

Manufacturing is one of the most important applica­tion area for automation technology. There are several types of automation in manufacturing. The examples of automated systems used in manufacturing are described below.

Fixed automation, sometimes called «hard automa­tion» refers to automated machines in which the equip­ment configuration allows fixed sequence of processing operations. These machines are programmed by their design to make only certain processing operations. They are not easily changed over from one product style to another. This form of automation needs high initial in­vestments and high production rates. That is why it is suitable for products that are made in large volumes. Examples of fixed automation are machining transfer lines found in the automobile industry, automatic assem­bly machines and certain chemical processes.

Programmable automation is a form of automation for producing products in large quantities, ranging from several dozen to several thousand units at a time. For each new product the production equipment must be reprogrammed and changed over. This reprogramming and changeover take a period of non-productive time. Pro­duction rates in programmable automation are generally lower than in fixed automation, because the equipment is designed to facilitate product changeover rather than for product specialization. A numerical-control machine-tool is a good example of programmable automation. The program is coded in computer memory for each differ­ent product style and the machine-tool is controlled by the computer program.

Flexible automation is a kind of programmable au­tomation. Programmable automation requires time to re-program and change over the production equipment for each series of new product. This is lost production time, which is expensive. In flexible automation the number of products is limited so that the changeover of the equip­ment can be done very quickly and automatically. The reprogramming of the equipment in flexible automation is done at a computer terminal without using the pro­duction equipment itself. Flexible automation allows a mixture of different products to be produced one right after another.

Vocabulary

equipment— оборудование

sequence — последовательность

initial — первоначальный, начальный

investment — инвестиция, вклад

to facilitate — способствовать

rate — скорость, темп

assembly machines — сборочные машины

quantity — количество

non-productive — непроизводительный

changeover — переход, переналадка

Exercise 1. General understanding:

1. What is the most important application of automa­tion?

2. What are the types of automation used in manu­facturing?

3. What is fixed automation?

4. What are the limitations of hard automation?

5. What is the best example of programmable auto­mation?

6. What are the limitations of programmable automa­tion?

7. What are the advantages of flexible automation?

8. Is it possible to produce different products one af­ter another using automation technology?

Exercise 2. Find equivalents in English in the text:

1. сфера применения

2. фиксированная последовательность операций

3. автоматические сборочные машины

4. определенные химические процессы

5. станок с числовым программным управлением

6. потерянное производственное время

7. разнообразная продукция

.

Exercise 3. Explain in English what does the following mean:

1. automation technology

2. fixed automation

3. assembly machines

4. non-productive time

5. programmable automation

6. computer terminal

7. numerical-control machine-tool

Text E. AUTOMATION IN INDUSTRY. FIXED AND PROGRAMMABLE AUTOMATION.

Automated production lines

An automated production line consists of a series of workstations connected by a transfer system to move parts between the stations. This is an example of fixed automation, since these lines are set up for long produc­tion runs, making large number of product units and running for several years between changeovers. Each station is designed to perform a specific processing op­eration, so that the part or product is constructed stepwise as it progresses along the line. A raw work part enters at one end of the line, proceeds through each workstation and appears at the other end as a completed product. In the normal operation of the line, there is a work part being processed at each station, so that many parts are being processed simultaneously and a finished part is produced with each cycle of the line. The various opera­tions, part transfers, and other activities taking place on an automated transfer line must all be sequenced and co­ordinated properly for the line to operate efficiently.

Modern automated lines are controlled by program­mable logic controllers, which are special computers that can perform timing and sequencing functions required to operate such equipment. Automated production lines are utilized in many industries, mostly automobile, where they are used for processes such as machining and pressworking.

Machining is a manufacturing process in which metal is removed by a cutting or shaping tool, so that the remain­ing work part is the desired shape. Machinery and motor components are usually made by this process. In many cases, multiple operations are required to completely shape the part. If the part is mass-produced, an automated transfer line is often the most economical method of pro­duction. Many separate operations are divided among the workstations.

Pressworking operations involve the cutting and forming of parts from sheet metal. Examples of such parts include automobile body panels, outer shells of laundry machines and metal furniture More than one processing step is often required to complete a compli­cated part. Several presses are connected together in se­quence by handling mechanisms that transfer the par­tially completed parts from one press to the next, thus creating an automated pressworking line.

Numerical control

Numerical control is a form of programmable auto­mation in which a machine is controlled by numbers (and other symbols) that have been coded on punched paper tape or an alternative storage medium . The initial appli­cation of numerical control was in the machine tool in­dustry, to control the position of a cutting tool relative to the work part being machined. The NC part program represents the set of machining instructions for the par­ticular part. The coded numbers in the program specify x-y-z coordinates in a Cartesian axis system, defining the various positions of the cutting tool in relation to the work part. By sequencing these positions in the program, the machine tool is directed to accomplish the machining of the part. A position feedback control system is used in most NC machines to verify that the coded instructions have been correctly performed. Today a small com­puter is used as the controller in an NC machine tool. Since this form of numerical control is implemented by computer, it is called computer numerical control, or CNC. Another variation in the implementation of nu­merical control involves sending part programs over telecommunications lines from a central computer to indi­vidual machine tools in the factory. This form of numeri­cal control is called direct numerical control, or DNC.

Many applications of numerical control have been de­veloped since its initial use to control machine tools. Other machines using numerical control include compo­nent-insertion machines used in electronics assembly, drafting machines that prepare engineering drawings, coordinate measuring machines that perform accurate inspections of parts. In these applications coded numerical data are employed to control the position of a tool or workhead relative to some object. Such machines are used to position electronic components (e.g., semiconductor chip modules) onto a printed circuit board (PCB). It is basically an x-y positioning table that moves the printed circuit board relative to the part-insertion head, which then places the individual component into position on the board. A typical printed circuit board has dozens of individual components that must be placed on its surface; in many cases, the lead wires of the components must be inserted into small holes in the board, requiring great precision by the insertion machine. The program that controls the machine indicates which components are to be placed on the board and their locations. This informa­tion is contained in the product-design database and is typically communicated directly from the computer to the insertion machine.

Automated assembly

Assembly operations have traditionally been per­formed manually, either at single assembly workstations or on assembly lines with multiple stations. Owing to the high labour content and high cost of manual labour, greater attention has been given in recent years to the use of automation for assembly work. Assembly opera­tions can be automated using production line principles if the quantities are large, the product is small, and the design is simple (e.g., mechanical pencils, pens, and ciga­rette lighters). For products that do not satisfy these conditions, manual assembly is generally required.

Automated assembly machines have been developed that operate in a manner similar to machining transfer lines, with the difference being that assembly operations, instead of machining, are performed at the workstations. A typical assembly machine consists of several stations, each equipped with a supply of components and a mecha­nism for delivering the components into position for as­sembly. A workhead at each station performs the actual attachment of the component. Typical workheads include automatic screwdrivers, welding heads and other join­ing devices. A new component is added to the partially completed product at each workstation, thus building up the product gradually as it proceeds through the line. Assembly machines of this type are considered to be ex­amples of fixed automation, because they are generally configured for a particular product made in high volume. Programmable assembly machines are represented by the component-insertion machines employed in the electron­ics industry.

Exercise 1. Read and translate the text.

GRAMMAR.

Придаточные предложения условия и времени, в которых

действие отнесено к будущему.

В придаточных предложениях условия и времени с союзами if (если), when (когда), after (после), before (перед тем, как), as soon as (как только), unless (если не), until (до тех пор, пока не), будущее время заменяется формой настоящего вре­мени, но на русский язык переводится будущим, на­пример:

If you help me, I shall do this work. — Если ты по­можешь мне, я сделаю эту работу.

As soon as I get free, I'll come to you. — Как только я освобожусь, я приду к тебе.

We shall not begin until you come. — Мы не начнем, пока ты не придешь.

Exercise 1. Open the brackets and put the verbs in the right form:

1. He (go) out when the weather (get) warmer. 2. I (wait) for you until you (come) back from school. 3. I'm afraid the train (start) before we (come) to the station. 4. We (go) to the country tomorrow if the weather (to be) fine. 5. We (not pass) the examination next year if we not (work) harder. 6. If you (not drive) more carefully you (have) an accident. 7. You (be) late if you (not take) a taxi. 8. I (finish) reading this book before I (go) to bed. 9. You must (send) us a telegram as soon as you (arrive). 10. We (have) a picnic tomorrow if it (be) a fine day. 11. We (go) out when it (stop) raining. 12. We (not to have) din­ner until you (come). 13. I’m sure they (write) to us when they (know) our new address.

UNIT 2.

ROBOTICS.

Text A. ALL ABOUT ROBOTS.

Robotics, or the science and application of robots, has its root in Greek antiquity. However, the word "robot" was first used by the Czech writer Karel Capec in 1920 in a play entitled "R.U.R."

(Rossum's Universal Robots). In that play the mechanical automation created by Rossum and his son to serve mankind went out of control with disastrous consequences. Modern industrial robots are much more benign and helpful creations, responding tirelessly to sets of control instructions.

A true robot doesn't have to imitate the appearance of a human. The robot's anatomy should suit its job. In many cases two legs and two arms might not only be unnecessary but awkward. A single arm robot with a solid base is probably ideal for most industrial applications. Robots can be strong for heavy tasks or accurate and sensitive for delicate work. Assembly robots may need to have an extended reach and operate in pairs.

Some robots may learn from a human operator by being led through a new sequence of motions which they will then perform until re-instructed.

Painting and welding robots are frequently "taught" in this manner. Other robots can receive electronic instructions from an operator completely removed from the work site. The newly programmed instructions for the robot's control system actuate the motors which drive the robot through the desired sequence of actions.

Although the term "intelligence" must be used with caution, a certain amount of artificial intelligence and self-teaching ability is now being installed in robots. The robot, always within strict safety limitations, can learn, by trial and error, how to avoid obstacles and how to optimize the development of sophisticated sensory devises for robots, especially related to vision and touch, will vastly broaden their capabilities.

There are six categories of robots: (1) the manual manipulator, remotely controlled by a person, which carries out hand-and-arm functions to hold and move objects; (2) the fixed-sequence robot, which performs a series of operations in a preset order, always in the same series of locations in space; (3) the variable-sequence robot, which operates in the same manner as a fixed-sequence robot but can easily be reprogrammed for a different sequence of operations; (4) the playback robot, which repeats a sequence of movements and operations that are first "taught" by manual movement of a manipulator and stored in the robot's memory unit; (5) the numerically-controlled robot, 'which moves from one position to another according to numerical instructions in such forms as punched paper tapes or cards; and (6) the intelligent robot, an advanced type that can decide its course of action on the basis of its sensing devices and analytical capability.

Let's stop for a moment and redefine what a robot is. According to the Robotic Institute of America, an industrial robot is, "a reprogrammable, multi-functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts or tools through variable programmed motions to accept a variety of tasks."

The key words in this definition are, first, "reprogrammable", which differentiates the robot from hard automation; second, "multi-functional manipulator", which tells us that the robot is not limited to only one use; and third, "move", which tells us that robot can be used to move materials or a part of a tool; finally, "variable programmed motions" means that it can operate without the interaction of a person.

Today robots play a major role in welding, press-forming, coating and other operations, particularly in the automotive industry.

Exercise 1. Read and translate the text.

Text B. ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEM.

Today's robot control system - the computer that controls all of the motions of the robot - has difficulty in modifying the robot's behavior relative to it's working environment. In order to permit the robot to react quickly, sense data has to be processed and used by the control system in a few milliseconds. Such control systems are not yet available in commercial robots, but are being developed.

Robotic software has to be improved, especially where production and assembly are being done in small lots. Programming by teaching is too small to permit the economic use of robots. Techniques in software must be developed which will allow shop floor personnel to instruct a robot quickly and efficiently.

As with all computer installations, interfaces between systems continue to be a problem. Flexible automation and flexible manufacturing systems require the ability to interface all systems. Appropriately selected interface standards will permit this, but these not yet available.

Exercise 1.Ask questions to the text to make the plan.

Text C. ROBOTS IN MANUFACTURING.

Today most robots are used in manufacturing opera­tions. The applications of robots can be divided into three categories: material handling, processing operations, assembly and inspection.

Material-handling is the transfer of material and load­ing and unloading of machines. Material-transfer appli­cations require the robot to move materials or work parts from one to another. Many of these tasks are relatively simple: robots pick up parts from one conveyor and place them on another. Other transfer operations are more complex, such as placing parts in an arrangement that can be calculated by the robot. Machine loading and un­loading operations utilize a robot to load and unload parts. This requires the robot to be equipped with a gripper that can grasp parts. Usually the gripper must be designed specifically for the particular part geometry.

In robotic processing operations, the robot manipu­lates a tool to perform a process on the work part. Exam­ples of such applications include spot welding, continu­ous arc welding and spray painting. Spot welding of au­tomobile bodies is one of the most common applications of industrial robots. The robot positions a spot welder against the automobile panels and frames to join them. Arc welding is a continuous process in which robot moves the welding rod along the welding seam. Spray painting is the manipulation of a spray-painting gun over the sur­face of the object to be coated. Other operations in this category include grinding and polishing in which a ro­tating spindle serves as the robot's tool.

The third application area of industrial robots is as­sembly and inspection. The use of robots in assembly is expected to increase because of the high cost of manual labour. But the design of the product is an important aspect of robotic assembly. Assembly methods that are satisfactory for humans are not always suitable for ro­bots. Screws and nuts are widely used for fastening in manual assembly, but the same operations are extremely difficult for a one-armed robot.

Inspection is another area of factory operations in which the utilization of robots is growing. In a typical inspection job, the robot positions a sensor with respect to the work part and determines whether the part answers the quality specifications. In nearly all industrial robotic applications, the robot provides a substitute for human labour. There are certain characteristics of industrial jobs performed by humans that can be done by robots:

1. the operation is repetitive, involving the same ba­sic work motions every cycle,

2. the operation is hazardous or uncomfortable for the human worker (for example: spray painting, spot weld­ing, arc welding, and certain machine loading and un­loading tasks),

3. the workpiece or tool are too heavy and difficult to handle,

4. the operation allows the robot to be used on two or three shifts.

Vocabulary:

handling — обращение

transfer — передача, перенос

location — местонахождение

pick up — брать, подбирать

arrangement — расположение

to utilize — утилизировать, находить при­менение

gripper — захват

to grasp — схватывать

spot welding — точечная сварка

continuous — непрерывный

arc welding — электродуговая сварка

spray painting — окраска распылением

frame — рама

spray-painting gun — распылитель краски

grinding — шлифование

polishing — полирование

spindle — шпиндель

manual — ручной

labour — труд

hazardous — опасный

shift — смена

Exercise 1. General understanding:

1. How are robots used in manufacturing?

2. What is «material handling»?

3. What does a robot need to be equipped with to do loading and unloading operations?

4. What does robot manipulate in robotic processing operation?

5. What is the most common application of robots in automobile manufacturing?

6. What operations could be done by robot in car manu­facturing industry?

7. What are the main reasons to use robots in produc­tion?

8. How can robots inspect the quality of production?

9. What operations could be done by robots in hazard­ous or uncomfortable for the human workers conditions?

Text D. ROBOTS – THE IDEAL WORKERS?

We hear many complaints about work in factories; the work is often boring, heavy and repetitive; the operative doesn't have to think about the work; he gets no job satisfaction.

The answer is a robot.-For many jobs a robot is much better than human operative. Once it has been programmed, it will do its job over and over again. It never gets bored, it works at a constant speed; it doesn't make mistakes; its work is always of the same standard; it doesn't get tired; it can work 24 hours a day without breaks for food, rest or sleep.

Robots have other advantages, too. They can be designed to do almost any job. You can't change the human body, but a robot's arms, for example, can be made to move in any direction. Robots also can do very heavy work and they can operate in conditions that are too dangerous, too hot or too cold for people to work in. They can work under water, in poisonous gas and in radioactive areas.

It is obvious that robots have many advantages over human beings. However, it is also true that humans can do many things that robots can't. For example, humans can carry out a task without having to be told exactly how to do it first — in other words, they don't always have to be programmed. Humans can move, but robots are usually fixed in one place. If they are able to move, robots can do it only in a very limited way. Unlike robots, people can know whether what they are doing is good or bad, and whether it is boring or interesting. Also robots are only just beginning to be able to understand speech and writing, but humans can communicate easily with each other by these methods, and by many others — telephone, drawing, radio, and so on — as well.

And we should not forget that robots owe their existence to humans—we make them, repair them and control them, not the other way round.

Exercise 1. Contradict the statements.

1. There is no substitute for a human worker.

2. Human beings have no superiority over robots.

3. Robots can exist without humans.

Post Script Exercises.

Read the text below and decide which answer A, B, C or D best fits each space.

There is an example at the beginning (0).

Example:

0 A desiring В trying С hoping D expecting

ROBOTS

Ever since it was first possible to make a real robot, people have been (0) .... for the
invention of a machine that would do all the necessary jobs (1) .... the house. If boring
and repetitive factory work could be (2) .... by robots, why not boring and repetitive
household chores too?

For a long time the only people who really (3) .... ..the problem their attention were

amateur inventors. And they came up (4) .... a major difficulty. That is, housework is

.... very complex. It has never been one job, it has always been many. A factory robot

.... one task endlessly (7) .... it is reprogrammed to do something else. It doesn't run

the (8) .... factory. A housework robot, on the other (9)...... , has to do several different

(10) .... of cleaning and carrying jobs and also has to cope (11) .... all the different

shapes and positions of rooms, furniture, ornaments! cats and dogs.

(12) there have been some developments recently. Sensors are available to (13) ....

the robot locate objects and avoid obstacles. We have the technology to produce the hardware. All that is (14) .... is the software - the programs that will (15) .... the machine.

1	A	around	В	through	С for	D	over
2	A	made	В	managed	С succeeded	D	given
3	A	took	B	gave	С did	D	showed
4	A	to	B	for	С against	D	on
5	A	hardly	B	seriously	С surely	D	actually
6	A	carries out	B	carries over	С carries away	D	carries off
7	A	since	B	while	С when	D	until
8	A	total	B	whole	C full	D	all
9	A	side	B	part	С hand	D	view
100	A	types	B	ways	C methods	D	systems
11	A	for	B	from	C by	D	with
12	A	moreover moreover moreover moreover moreover moreover	B	however	C besides	D	therefore
13	A	assist	B	allow	C help	D	enable
14	A	missing	B	short	C left	D	needing
15	A	order	B	practise	C perform	D	operate

GRAMMAR.

Сослагательное наклонение (Subjunctive mood).

Сослагательное наклонение выражает возмож­ность, нереальность, предположительность действия.

Изъявительное наклонение.

If I learn his address I shall write to him. — Если я узнаю его адрес, я ему напишу.

Сослагательное наклонение:

If I knew his address I would write to him. — Если бы я знал его адрес (сейчас), я написал бы ему (сейчас или в ближайшем будущем). Глагол в придаточном предложении — в форме Past Indefinite, в главном — в форме Future in the Past.

В случае, если действие, описываемое сослагатель­ным наклонением, относится к прошедшему времени, в главном предложении используется форма будуще­го совершенного с точки зрения прошедшего Future Perfect in the Past, а в придаточном — прошедшее со­вершенное Past Perfect.

If I had known his address I would have written to him. — Если бы я знал его адрес (в прошлом), я напи­сал бы ему (в прошлом же).

I wish I lived not far from here. (настоящее вре­мя). — Жаль, что я не живу поблизости.

I wish I had lived not far from here. (прошедшее вре­мя). — Жаль, что я не жил поблизости.

Exercise 1. Translate into Russian:

1. If I came later I would be late for the lesson. 2. If he had known the time-table he wouldn't have missed the train. 3. It would be better if you learned the oral topics. 3. I wish I had known this before the examination. 4.1 would have come to you if you had not lived so far away. 5. If I had seen you yesterday I would have given you my text-book. 6. If I were in your place I wouldn't buy the tickets beforehand. 7. If I had known that you needed help I would have helped you.

UNIT 3.

NEW SOURCES OF POWER.

Text A. SOURCES OF POWER.

The industrial progress of mankind is based on power: power for industrial plants, machines, heating and lighting systems, transport, communication. In fact, one can hardly find a sphere where power is not required.

At present most of the power required is obtained mainly from two sources. One is from the burning of fossil fuels, i. e. coal, natural gas I and oil. The second way of producing electricity is by means of genera­tors that get their power from steam or water turbines. Electricity so pro­duced then flows through transmission lines to houses, industrial plants, enterprises, etc.

It should be noted, however, that the generation of electricity by these conventional processes is highly uneconomic. Actually, only about 40 per cent of heat in the fuel is converted into electricity. Besides, the world resources of fossil fuels are not ever-lasting. On the other hand, the power produced by hydroelectric plants, even if increased many times, will be able to provide for only a small fraction of the power re­quired in the near future. Therefore much effort and thought is being given to other means of generating electricity.

One is the energy of hot water. Not long ago we began utilizing hot underground water for heating and hot water supply, and in some cases, for the generation of electricity.

Another promising field for the production of electric power is the use of ocean tides. Our engineers are engaged in designing tidal power stations of various capacities. The first station utilizing this principle be­gan operating in Russia on the Barents Sea in 1968.

The energy of the sun which is being used in various ways repre­sents a practically unlimited source.

Using atomic fuel for the production of electricity is highly promis­ing. It is a well-known fact, that one pound of uranium contains as much energy as three million pounds of coal, so cheap power can be provided wherever it is required. However, the efficiency reached in gen­erating power from atomic fuel is not high, namely 40 per cent.

No wonder, therefore, that scientists all over the world are doing their best to find more efficient ways of generating electricity directly from the fuel. They already succeeded in developing some processes which are much more efficient, as high as 80 per cent, and in creating a number of devices capable of giving a higher efficiency. Scientists are hard at work trying to solve these and many other problems.

Vocabulary:

i. е. (лат. id est) = that is — то есть

on the other hand — с другой стороны;

on the one hand — с одной стороны

to do one's best — делать все возможное

hard at work — упорно работают (трудятся)

besides — кроме, кроме того

however — однако

capable — способный

means — средство;

by means o f —посредством
capacity — мощность

case — случай

namely — а именно

cheap — дешевый

oil — нефть
conventional — стандартный, обычный

per cent — процент

convert — превращать

reach — достигать
efficiency — производительность, к.п.д.

represent —представлять

effort — усилие

require — требовать

engaged — занятый

source — источник

enterprise — предприятие

succeed (in) — удаваться

flow — течь

tide — морской прилив и отлив

fuel — топливо

try — стараться

Exercise 1. Answer the questions:

1. What is the industrial progress of mankind based on?

2. Which is the first widely applied method of producing electricity at present?

3. Which is the second way of generating power?

4. What (how high) is the efficiency of these two methods?

5. What do we use the energy of hot water for?

6. When and where did the first power station using ocean tides be­gin operating in Russia?

7. What can you say about the energy of the sun?

8. What fuel is the most promising for the production of electric­ity?

9. Is the efficiency of generating power from atomic fuel high or not?

10. What problem do scientists pay great attention to?

Text B. HYDROGEN – SOURCE OF POWER.

Scientists consider hydrogen a very promising energy source. The reserves of hydrogen are practically unlimited. Per unit of weight it contains almost three times more thermal energy than benzene. Besides, hydrogen can be used as fuel in transport, industry and home.

Hydrogen is easy to transport and store. It can be transported over large distances using conventional pipelines. It can be accumulated and kept for a long time either in conventional or natural reservoirs.

Scientists have found many ways of producing hydrogen — basically from ordinary water. And large volumes of this fuel can be obtained from coal, whose global reserves are tremendous. There is also an idea of using nuclear power plants to generate hydrogen. Scientists hope to use the energy of the sun, wind and tides to obtain hydrogen.

In several countries car engines fed by hydrogen have been tested successfully. Tests have also shown that adding five to ten per cent hy­drogen to benzene increases engine efficiency by 40—45 per cent.

What is still holding back the use of hydrogen as fuel, and what has to be done in order to apply it extensively in the economy? The main reason is that now it is more expensive than mineral fuels, but in the near future hydrogen can be made cheaper to obtain. This new kind of energy opens up new prospects in aviation, metallurgy and some other industries.

Vocabulary:

add — добавить

hope — надеяться

accumulate — накапливать

keep (kept) — хранить

consider — считать

nuclear power plant — атомная электростанция

engine — двигатель

pipeline — трубопровод

feed — питать

reason — причина

hold back (held) — задерживать

store — накапливать

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences according to the text:

1. Scientists consider hydrogen...

1. not a very promising energy source;

2. a very promising energy source;

3. a more promising energy source than atomic energy.

2. At present hydrogen fuel is being produced from...

1. the energy of the sun;

2. the energy of the wind and tides;

3. ordinary water.

3. Adding a few per cent of hydrogen to benzene...

1. greatly increases engine efficiency;

2. decreases a little engine efficiency;

3. does not change engine efficiency.

4. Hydrogen is not used widely as a fuel at present because...

1. hydrogen reserves are limited;

2. its production is very expensive at present;

3. it is impossible to accumulate and keep it for a long time.

Exercise 2. Choose the proper translation:

1. источник (энергии) — a) reserve; b) resource; с) source

2. топливо — a) fuel; b) oil; c) tide; d) way

3. обычный — a) promising; b) efficient; c) cheap; d) conventional

4. преобразовывать — a) convert; b) consist; c) contain; d) create

5. достигать — a) represent; b) remain; c) resist; d) reach

6. стараться — a) flow; b) try; c) obtain; d) use

7. посредством — a) however; b) namely; c) no wonder; d) by means

8. поэтому — a) thanks to; b) besides; c) i. е.; d) therefore

Text C. PEACEFUL ATOMS.

Achievements in studying atom structure have opened up new, practi­cally unlimited possibilities to humanity for further mastering nature's forces. The discovery of atomic energy provides as profound effect for the benefit of civilization as the discovery of fire and electricity.

After having recovered from the shock of unimaginable horror of the explosion of the atomic bomb over Hiroshima people asked scientists how soon they would be able to apply the immense power of fissioned nucleus to peaceful purposes. Many problems had to be solved: the main one was that of "braking" the released neutrons efficiently so that the chain reaction could be controlled.

The "classical" solution to this problem is conducting the heat gener­ated by the fission process out of the reactor, making it boil water and forcing the resulting steam to drive turbines which, in their turn, drive electric generators. It is a way which works well although it is still rather expensive.

It is to be noted that the first power station fed by atomic fuels which was also the world's first atomic power station started working in Obninsk, near Moscow, in 1954. Its capacity was 5,000 kilowatts. Thirty years later in the Soviet Union there were already 13 atomic power stations with the total capacity of over 21 million kilowatts.

At the same time with large atomic stations smaller mobile electricity producing units have been created based on the discovery of radioactive sources — isotopes. Mobile nuclear installations may be carried by rail and then by transporters to the out-of-the-way regions even in areas having no roads. Such a station according to estimates can operate with­out being recharged for two years.

Today scientists are looking for new more efficient nuclear processes of producing energy. But it was only lately that the physicists understood that the process of producing tremendous energy by stars, including our Sun, was the very process they were looking for. Now we know that this thermonuclear process is called fusion and it takes place at fantasti­cally high temperatures. It can be done only by imitating on the Earth the process that makes the Sun shine.

There are many difficult problems to overcome before thermonuclear power stations based on this process can become a reality, but the prob­lem of fuel supply is the least of them: the oceans of the Earth are practically an inexhaustible source of deuterium which plays the decisive part in the fusion process and its extraction from sea water is neither complicated nor expensive.

In short, peaceful uses of atomic energy are vast — but we must stop using it on weapons of mass annihilation.

Vocabulary:

provides as profound effect for the benefit of civilization — оказывает такое же глубокое влияние на развитие цивилизации

in their turn — в свою очередь

out-of-the-way regions — отдаленные районы

in short — короче говоря

according (to) — согласно

inexhaustible — неистощимый

although — хотя

lately — недавно
brake — тормозить, обуздывать

purpose — цель

decisive — решающий

recover — приходить в себя

explosion — взрыв

release — освобождать

feed (fed) — питать

shine (shone) — светить

fusion — синтез

(the) very — тот самый
humanity — человечество

Exercise 1. Answer the questions:

1. What possibilities have the achievements in the study of atom structure opened up?

2. What question did people ask scientists after the explosion of the first atomic bomb?

3. What was the main problem in applying the immense power of fissioned nucleus to peaceful purposes?

4. When and where did the first atomic power station start working?

5. What was its capacity?

6. Why are mobile nuclear installations convenient?

7. How long can they operate without being recharged?

8. What thermonuclear process takes place at fantastically high tem­peratures?

9. What element plays the decisive part in fusion process?

10. What can this element be extracted from?

Text D. NUCLEAR POWER? WELL, YES.

Although nuclear reactors have generated electricity commercially for 40 years and nearly 400 now in operation, two major accidents - in the US in 1979 and Chernobyl in the USSR in 1986 - put the industry under a radioactive cloud. In the popular imagination, reactors are nuclear bombs; even if they don't explode, they go on accumulating waste that will finally cause a global catastrophe.

As a result, an energy source once considered as the fuel of the future became questionable. But not everywhere. Nuclear power provides nearly a quarter of the electricity generated in the industrialized Western by the 24-member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. In France more than 76% of electric is nuclear-generated, in Belgium - 62%, Sweden - 50%, Germany, Switzerland, Spain and Finland come in at one third, Japan a little less; Britain, the US and Canada - under 20%. Some countries have no nuclear power plants at all and don't want any.

Not only have the strong emotions of fear worked against nuclear power. Energy demand grew more slowly than expected in the past. Prices of oil and coal have reduced. However, energy prices can rise Moreover, supplies of fossil fuel are limited, while energy needs and tide can’t meet the increasing Although nuclear reactors have generated electricity commercially for 40 years and nearly 400 now in operation, two major accidents - in the US in 1979 and Chernobyl in the USSR in 1986 - put the industry under a radioactive cloud. In the popular imagination, reactors are nuclear bombs; even if they don't explode, they go on accumulating waste that will finally cause a global catastrophe.

As a result, an energy source once considered as the fuel of the future became questionable. But not everywhere. Nuclear power provides nearly a quarter of the electricity generated in the industrialized Western by the 24-member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. In France more than 76% of electric is nuclear-generated, in Belgium - 62%, Sweden - 50%, Germany, Switzerland, Spain and Finland come in at one third, Japan a little less; Britain, the US and Canada - under 20%. Some countries have no nuclear power plants at all and don't want any.

Not only have the strong emotions of fear worked against nuclear power. Energy demand grew more slowly than expected in the past. Prices of oil and coal have reduced. However, energy prices can rise Moreover, supplies of fossil fuel are limited, while energy requirements. Besides, nuclear power doesn’t add to global warming.

All this causes the people to believe that the world can’t live and work without nuclear power.

Exercise 1.Read and translate the text without a dictionary.

Text E. NON-TRADITIONAL RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY.

It is known that much is being done in the world today for the development of non-traditional sources of energy. Without them the Earth cannot support its present population of 5 billion people and probably 8 billion people in the 21-st century.

Now we are using traditional power sources, that is, oil, natural gas, coal and water power with the consumption of more than 50 billion barrels per year. It is evident that these sources are not unlimited.

That is why it is so important to use such renewable sources of energy as the sun, wind, geothermal energy and others. Research is being carried out in these fields.

One of the most promising (перспективный) research is the development of power stations with direct transformation of solar energy into electricity on the basis of photoeffect. It was Russia that was the first in the world to develop and test a photoelectric battery of 32,000 volts and effective area of only 0.5 sq.m., which made it possible to concentrate solar radiation. This idea is now being intensively developed in many countries. However, the efficiency of a solar power station is considerably reduced because of the limited time of its work during the year. But it is possible to improve the efficiency of solar power stations by developing different combinations of solar power stations and traditional ones - thermal, atomic and hydraulic. Today some engineers are working at the problem of developing electric power stations with the use of a thermal-chemical cycle. It will operate on products of the transformation of solar energy, whereas the "solar" chemical reactor uses C0₂ and water steam of the thermal power station. The result is that we have a closed cycle.

In Kamchatka there are geothermal power stations operating on hot water-steam mixture from the depths of about a kilometre. In some projects water will be heated by the warmth of mountains at a depth of four - five km.

It is planned that plants working on the energy of the solar heat provided by the sun will be built on a larger scale.

That different wind energy plants are being developed is also well-known. These energy plants can be small (of several kilowattes) and large powerful systems.

It is important that all these advances in developing new sources of energy and improving the old ones help to solve the energy problem as a whole and they do not have negative effects on the environment

Exercise 1. General understanding:

1. What are the most promising sources of power?

2. What are the main differences of nontraditional sources of power ?

Exercise 2.Give the gist of the text.

GRAMMAR.

Основные способы словообразования.

1. Словообразование путем конверсии. При конверсии от одного слова без изменения его формы образуется новое слово, относящееся к другой части речи, например:

Существительное Прилагательное

an oval – овал an oval figure – овальная фигура

a square – квадрат a square window – квадратное окно

Существительное или Глагол

прилагательное

function – функция to function – функционировать

better – лучший to better – улучшать

Часть речи таких слов определяется на основании их формальных и синтаксических признаков.

1. Образование слов при помощи переноса ударения. Существительные и прилагательные имеют ударение на первом слоге (даже если это приставка), а совпадающие с ними по форме глаголы имеют ударение на втором слоге:

^|export – экспорт, вывоз - to ex ^|port – вывозить

^| increase – увеличение – to in ^|crease – увеличивать

^| compound – смесь – to com ^|pound – смешивать, составлять

UNIT 4.

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND A NEW HOPE FOR ENERGY.

Text A. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY.

According to the prominent scientist in this country V. L. Ginzburg the latest world achievements in the field of superconductivity mean a revolution in technology and industry. Recent spectacular breakthroughs in superconductors may be compared with the physics discoveries that led to electronics and nuclear power. They are likely to bring the mankind to the threshold of a new technological age. Prestige, economic and military benefits could well come to the nation that first masters this new field of physics. Superconductors were once thought to be physically impossible. But in 1911 superconductivity was discovered by a Dutch physicist K.Onnes, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his low-temperature research. He found the electrical resistivity of a mercury wire to disappear suddenly when cooled below a temperature of 4 Kelvin (~269°C). Absolute zero is known to be 0 K. This discovery was a completely unexpected phenomenon. He also discovered that a superconducting material can be returned to the normal state either by passing a sufficiently large current through or by applying a sufficiently strong magnetic field to it. But at that time there was no theory to explain this.

For almost 50 years after K.Onnes' discovery theorists were unable to develop a fundamental theory of superconductivity. In 1950 physicists Landau and Ginzburg made a great contribution to the development of superconductivity theory. They introduced a model which proved to be useful in understanding electromagnetic properties of superconductors. Finally, in 1957 a satisfactory theory was presented by American physicists, which won for them in 1972 the Nobel Prize in physics. Research in superconductors became especially active since a discovery made in 1986 by IBM scientists in Zurich. They found a metallic ceramic compound to become a superconductor at a temperature well above the previously achieved record of 23 K.

It was difficult to believe it. However, in 1987 American physicist Paul Chu informed about a much more sensational discovery: he and his colleagues produced superconductivity at an unbelievable before temperature 98 К in a special ceramic material. At once in all leading laboratories throughout the world superconductors of critical temperature 100 К and higher (that is, above the boiling temperature of liquid nitrogen) were obtained. Thus, potential technical uses of high temperature superconductivity seemed to be possible and practical. Now some scientists are trying to find a ceramic that works at room temperature. But getting superconductors from the laboratory into reduction will be no easy task. While the new superconductors are easily made, their quality is often uneven. Some tend to break when reduced, others lose their superconductivity within minutes or hours. All are extremely difficult to fabricate into wires. Moreover, scientists lack a full understanding of how ceramics become superconductors. This fact makes developing new substances largely a random process. This is likely to continue until theorists give a fuller explanation of how superconductivity is produced in the new materials.

Vocabulary:

1. spectacular breakthroughs - захватывающие открытия.

2. well above - намного выше

Exercise 1. General understanding:

1. What is this text about?

2. What is the phenomenon of superconductivity?

3. Who was the first to discover the phenomenon?

4. What scientists do you know who have worked in the field of superconductivity?

5. What materials are the best superconductors?

6. Is it possible to return superconducting materials to the normal state?

7. How can it be done?

8. In what fields of science and technology can the phenomenon of superconductivity be used?

Exercise 2. Are the sentences true or false? Correct the wrong sentences according to the text.

1. The latest achievements in superconductivity mean a revolution in technology and industry.

2. Superconductors were once thought to be physically impossible. 3. The achievements in superconductivity cannot be compared with the discoveries that led to electronics and nuclear power. 4. The electrical resistivity of a mercury wire disappears when cooled below 4 K.

5. A superconductivity material cannot be returned to the normal state. 6. Landau and Ginzburg introduced a model which was useful in understanding electromagnetic properties of superconductors. 7. Scientists from IBM found a ceramic material that became a superconductor at a temperature of 23 K. 8. Potential technical uses of high temperature superconductivity are unlikely to be possible and practical.

Exercise 3. Make a sentence out of the two parts:

1. Recent achievements in 1. fundamental theory to explain this unexpected

superconductivity research are phenomenon.

2. they may be compared with 2. found the electrical resistivity of mercury to

disappear when cooled to the temperature of 4

Kelvin.

3. Superconductivity is known to 3. to the development of superconductivity theory.

4. While carrying out his low 4. have been discovered by a Dutch physicist.

temperature research he

5. For 50 years after the discovery 5. of great importance for science and technology.

there was no

6. In the 1950s Russia and American 6. since the discovery of a superconductive metallic

physicists made a great contribution ceramics

7. Research in the field of 7. physics discoveries that led to the development

superconductivity became especially of electronics and nuclear power.

active

Exercise 4. Найдите в тексте инфинитивные конструкции.

Exercise 5. Найдите предложения со сложным подлежащим при глаголе-сказуемом в действительном залоге, переведите:

1. The phenomenon of superconductivity appears to have been discovered as early as 1911. 2. Before 1911 superconductivity was assumed to be impossible. 3. Recent discoveries in superconductivity made scientists look for new conducting materials and for practical applications of the phenomenon. 4. The latest achievements in the field of superconductivity are certain to make a revolution in technology and industry. 5. Recommendations from physicists will allow the necessary measures to be taken to protect the air from pollute 6. Lasers are sure to do some jobs better and more economically than other devices. 7. M. Faraday supposed a light beam to reverse its polarization as it passed through a magnetised crystal. 8. Superconductors are likely to find applications we don't even think of at present. 9. A Dutch physicist found a superconducting material to return to normal state when a strong magnetic field was applied. 10. Properties of materials obtained in space prove to be much better than tin produced on Earth. 11. There are prospects for lasers to be used in long distance communication and for transmission of energy to space stations. 12. The electrical resistivity of a mercury wire was found to disappear when cooled to -269 °C. 13. Additional radio transmitters let the pilot make his approach to an airport by watching his flight instruments. 14. There seems to be a lot of alloys and compounds that become superconductors under certain conditions.

Text B.

Superconductivity is a state of matter that chemical element compounds and alloys assume on being cooled to temperatures пи to absolute zero. Hence, a superconductor is a solid material that abruptly loses all resistance to the flow of electric current when cooled below a characteristic temperature. This temperature differs for different materials but generally is within the absolute zero (-273° C). Superconductors have thermal, electric and magnetic properties that differ from their properties at higher temperatures and from properties of nonsuperconductive materials.

Now hundreds of materials are known to become superconductors at low temperature. Approximately 26 of the chemical elements are superconductors. Among these are commonly known metals such aluminium, tin, lead and mercury and several less common ones.

Most of the known superconductors are alloys or compounds.

It is possible for a compound to be superconducting even if the chemical elements constituting it are not.

Exercise 1.Read the text and make the title.

Text C. NEW HOPE FOR ENERGY.

Recently some ceramic materials have been found to be super conductors. Superconducting ceramics are substances which can transmit electric currents with no loss of energy at temperatures much higher than conventional superconductors (that is, at the temperature of liquid nitrogen).

One use for the new superconductors would be to replace those that need the extreme cold of liquid helium - huge superconducting electromagnets used in nuclear magnetic resonance research, atomic article acceleration and research reactors.

Other types of electromagnets made with superconductors could be used to lower the cost of electric generation and storage. Such uses nay take 10 years of research, a quicker use will probably be in electronics.

Researchers now estimate that tiny but immensely powerful high-peed computers using supercoductors may be three to five years away. Farther off are 300 m.p.h. trains that float on magnetic cushions which w exist as prototypes but may take at least a decade to perfect. Power lines that can meet a city's electric needs with superconductor cables may be even farther in the future.

Meanwhile, scientists around the world are trying to turn the new materials into useful products. Among the most notable is a micron-thin film to transmit useful amounts of electric current without losing superconductivity. The film could be used in the microscopic circuitry of advanced computers as high-speed pathway (маршрут, соединение) between computer chips.

Several nations are known to be very active in superconductor research. For example, the United States is spending millions of dollars и such research, much of it for military uses: projectile accelerators, lasers, ship and submarine propulsion.

Exercise 1. General understanding:

1. How will superconductors be used in future?

Exercise 2.Give the gist of the text.

GRAMMAR.

Словообразование с помощью прибавления префиксов (приставок) и суффиксов к основе слова.

1. Основные суффиксы существительных:

-ег	to work — работать	worker — рабочий
	to convert — преобразовать	converter — преобразователь
-or	to insulate — изолировать	insulator — изолятор
	to translate — переводить	translator — переводчик
-ing	to begin — начинать	beginning — начало
-ment	to develop — развивать	development — развитие
-th	strong - сильный	strength - сила
-ion	to express - выражать	expression - выражение
-ation	to inform - сообщать	information - сообщение
-sion	to decide - решать	decision - решение
-ssion	to permit - разрешать	permission -разрешение
-ance	to assist - помогать	assistance - помощь
-ity	equal - равный	equality - равенство
-ness	happy - счастливый	happiness - счастье
-ancy	constant - постоянный	constancy - постоянство
-ence	to differ - отличаться	difference - отличие
-ency	to depend - зависеть	dependency - зависимость
-age	to break - ломать	breakage - поломка

2. Основные суффиксы глаголов:

-ate -ify -ize -en

active — активный electric — электрический character — характер deep — глубокий

to activate - активизировать to electrify-электрифицировать to characterize — (о)характеризовать to deepen — углублять

3. Основные суффиксы прилагательных:

-able	comfort — удобство, комфорт	comfortable — удобный
-ible	to convert — превращать	convertible — изменяемый
-ic(al)	history — история	historic(al) — исторический
	ideology — идеология	ideological — идеологический
-al	form — форма	formal — формальный
-ant	importance — важность	important — важный
-ent	to differ — различать(ся)	different — различный
-fill	peace — мир	peaceful — мирный
-less	home — дом (очаг)	homeless — бездомный
-ish	red — красный	reddish — красноватый
-ive	effect — влияние, эффект	effective — эффективный
-ous	danger — опасность	dangerous — опасный
-y	wind — ветер	windy — ветреный

UNIT 5.

LASER.

Text A. THE LASER TODAY AND TOMORROW.

The laser has become a multipurpose tool. It has caused a real revo­lution in technology.

Atoms emit rays of different length, which prevents the forming of an intense beam of light. The laser forces its atoms to emit rays having the same length and travelling in the same direction. The result is a nar­row, extremely intense beam of light that spreads out very little and is therefore able to travel very great distances.

The most common laser is the helium-neon laser in the laser tube, containing 10 per cent helium gas and 90 per cent neon gas. At the end of the tube there is a mirror, and at the other end there is a partial mir­ror. The electrons get energy from a power supply and become "ex­cited", giving off energy as light. This light is reflected by the mirror at one end of the tube. It can only escape through the partial mirror at the other end of the tube.

The first laser was built in 1960. Since then scientists have devel­oped several types of the laser which make use of luminescent crystals, luminescent glass, a mixture of various gases and finally semiconductors.

Having been developed at Lebedev Institute of Physics in 1962, semiconductor quantum generators occupy a special place among the optical generators. While the size of the ruby crystal laser comes to tens of centimetres and that of the gas generator is about a metre long, the semiconductor laser is a few tens of a millimetre long, the density of its radiation being hundreds of thousands of times greater than that of the best ruby laser.

But the most interesting thing about the semiconductor laser is that it is able to transform electrical energy directly into light wave energy. With an efficiency approaching 100 per cent as compared to a maximum of about 1 per cent of other types, the semiconductor laser opens up new possibilities of producing extremely economical sources of light.

But it is in the field of communication that the laser will find its most extensive application in future. Scientists foresee the day when a single la­ser beam will be employed to carry simultaneously millions of telephone conversations or a thousand of television programmes. It will serve for fast communications across continents, under the sea, between the Earth and spaceships and between men travelling in space

The potential importance of these applications continues to stimulate new development in the laser field

Vocabulary:

the laser — слово лазер состоит из начальных букв фразы, описывающей функцию прибора: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation — усиление света в результате вынужденного излучения

partial mirror — полупрозрачное стекло

power supply — источник питания

approach — приближаться; достигать

beam — луч

carry — передавать

compare — сравнивать

density — плотность

emit — излучать

employ — использовать

extensive — обширный

foresee (foresaw; foreseen) — предвидеть

intense — интенсивный

mirror — зеркало

narrow — узкий

prevent — препятствовать

single — один, единственный

spread (spread)— распространяться

travel v — двигаться

Exercise 1. General understanding:

1. What is the laser?

2. What is the function of the laser?

3. What beam of light does the laser produce?

4. When was the first laser built?

5. What types of quantum generators did scientists develop after 1960?

6. What type of the laser is the most common one at present?

7. Where will the laser find the most extensive applications in future?

Text B. THE ELECTRO-IONIZING LASER.

The 20th century was often called the age of the atom, the age of polymers, or the space age. It would be equally correct to call it the age of the laser.

It is impossible to list all the jobs the laser can do. It has become a part of our life being used in various industries, medicine, biology, etc. It should be mentioned that all the methods we know of processing ma­terials with the laser were suggested not long ago. Physicists knew of the tremendous capabilities of the laser beam, but they could not be real­ized until the laser of adequate capacity was developed. To make a laser device really useful the radiation intensity had to be increased (since ca­pacity determines productivity) and high beam efficiency created.

Creating a highly effective laser device is still one of the main prob­lems of quantum electronics. In a gas laser device all one has to do in order to increase the capacity is to increase the volume and the pressure of gas. This sounds simple, but the doing of it is not.

The best results were achieved with electro-ionizing laser devices (EILs) operating on carbon dioxide. They have found a wide field of ap­plication. EILs of some 10-kilowatt capacity can weld and cut metal; pulse EILs with radiation energy of 10 kilojoules and a pulse duration of 1/1,000,000,000th of a second can heat plasma to nearly thermonuclear temperatures.

Vocabulary:

capabilities —возможности

correct — правильный

carbon dioxide — двуокись углерода

list — перечислять

nearly — почти

process — обрабатывать

pulse duration — продолжительность импульса

sound — звучать

tremendous — огромный

weld — сваривать

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences according to the text.

1. The list of jobs the laser can do is...

1. limited;

2. very short;

3. so long that it is impossible to name all of them.

2. The laser productivity is determined by...

1. radiation intensity;

2. the volume of gas in a laser tube;

3. the size.

3. One of the main problems of quantum electronics is...

1. creating a very small laser device;

2. creating a laser device which would operate in various conditions;

3. creating a highly effective laser device.

Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps with the words from the list below:

1. One cannot ... all the jobs which the laser can do.

2. Scientists say that the ... of the laser are tremendous.

3. The laser is widely used for ... and ... metals.

4. The gas lasers operating on … ... has found a wide field of applica­tion.

cutting; capabilities; welding; carbon dioxide; list

Text C. AN ENCYCLOPEDIA ON A TINY CRYSTAL.

Scientists have discovered that a laser beam can be effectively used to record alphanumeric data and sound on crystals. According Russian researchers a method for recording information on crystals by means of a laser has already been developed, but advanced technologies are needed to make it commercially applicable.

At present researchers are looking for the most suitable chemical compounds to be used as data storages and trying to determine optimum recording conditions. Theoretically, the entire "Great Soviet Encyclopedia" can be recorded on a single tiny crystal.

As far back as 1845, Michael Faradey discovered that a light beam reverses its polarization as it passes through a magnetized crystal Scientists of our day have used this phenomenon to identify crystalline materials capable of storing information. Lasers have been successfully employed to record information on and read it off.

No ideal data storage crystal has yet been found, but it is obvious now that the future of computer engineering lies in lasers and optoelectronics. As paper gave way to magnetic tape, so the latter is to be replaced by tiny crystals.

Exercise 1.Read the text and about practical application of lasers.

Text D. LASER TECHNOLOGY.

In the last decade there was outstanding progress in the development of laser technology and it's application in science, industry and commerse. Laser cutting, welding and machining are beginning to be big business. The market for laser systems represents around 2,5 % of the world machine tool market.

Which country is the biggest producer and consumer of lasers? Why, Japan, naturally: Japan produced 46% of world's lasers in 1989, while figures for Europe and the USA are 32% and 22%. Japan is building 1 200 to 2 000 CO2 lasers per year of which some 95% are over 500W power and 80% of them are used for cutting operations.

Europe is the second largest user and the third largest producer. In 1990 Europe's market for lasers was $128 million, of which Germany consumed about $51 million, and Italy — $12 million. The Germany met 90% of its demands through domestic producers. Growth rate of the European market is estimated at 10 to 15% per year.

In future the main trend influencing the industry will be laser source prices. The prices are dropping. There appear lasers of modular construction. The complexity of laser machines is rising. Multi-axes systems are in more use now. Recently 7-axis CNC laser machining center has been introduced. In addition to X,Y and Z axes, there are two rotary axes, A and C, and two more linear axes, U and V, to give a trepanning (прорезать большие отверстия) motion to the laser.

GRAMMAR.

Интернациональная лексика.

Накопление словарного запаса, необходимого для понимания и перевода иностранной литературы, является одним из наиболее труд­ных видов работы при изучении иностранного языка.

В английских общественно-политических и технических текстах используется много интернациональных слов, которые можно понять, не прибегая к помощи словаря. Это слова, заимствованные, главным образом, из латинского, греческого, а также ряда других языков. На­пример: atom атом, document документ, amplitude амплитуда, function функция, corrosion коррозия и т. д.

Для того чтобы суметь без помощи словаря понять многие ин­тернациональные слова, встречающиеся в текстах, необходимо знать основные буквенные соответствия в английском и русском языках, а именно:

В английском языке	В русском языке	Примеры
с	к ц	conductor, dielectric conference, process
g	г ж	gas, organ, agronomist engineer
y	и ия (в конце слов)	system, crystal theory, geometry
ch	х	mechanism, technology
x	кс	complex, experiment
au	ав ay	August, automobile auditorium, pause
qu	кв	quartz, equivalent
th	т	theory, theorem
-(at)ion, -tion	-ция	tradition, ionization
-ssion	-ссия	discussion, transmission
-ture	-тура	structure, temperature
-ist	-ист	socialist, communist
-ism	-изм	socialism, capitalism
-asm	-азм	sarcasm
-ti-	-ц-	potential, differential

Следует помнить, что произношение интернациональных слов в английском языке, за исключением незначительного количества слов, отличается от их произношения в русском. Поэтому для их понима­ния нужно взять в качестве исходного момента не звучание англий­ских слов, а их написание латинскими буквами, например: pilot, period, meter и т. д.

Однако в некоторых словах, преимущественно в поздних заимст­вованиях из английского, гласные в русском языке отражают скорее произношение английского слова, чем орфографию, например: com­bine комбайн, leader лидер, вождь, foot фут и др.

Соотношение значений интернациональных слов в английском и русском языках.

По соотнесенности значений интернациональные слова можно разделить на три основные группы:

1. слова, полностью совпадающие по значению, например: ego­ism, party, physics, gas, metal, mineral и многие другие. Значение этих слов можно легко понять без словаря, зная, какой частью речи они являются;

2. слова, имеющие в английском языке более широкое значе­ние и сферу применения, чем в русском (многозначные слова). В русском языке такие слова употребляются, как правило, лишь в од­ном значении, например:

address n — 1) адрес'; 2) обращение, речь; v — обратиться

finish n— 1) финиш (в спорте); 2) окончание, отделка; v— 1) заканчивать; 2) отделывать

operation п — 1) операция; 2) работа, действие

occupation п— 1) оккупация; 2) род занятий, работа

control п — 1) контроль; 2) управление, регулировка; v — управлять (реже — контролировать)

figure п — 1) фигура; 2) внешний вид; 3) иллюстрация, рису­нок (в книге), диаграмма, чертеж; 4) цифра и др.; v — изображать графически

character п — 1) характер; 2) характеристика; 3) фигура, лич­ность; 4) действующее лицо (в пьесе); 5) буква и др.

instrument п — 1) инструмент; 2) прибор

Таким образом, если известное значение интернационального слова не подходит в данном контексте, следует обратиться к словарю и отыскать в нем то значение, которое наиболее правильно передаст его смысл.

3. слова, сходные по звучанию, но имеющие совершенно раз­личные значения в русском и английском языках, так называемые «ложные друзья переводчика», например:

accuracy n точность (а не аккуратность)

camera n фото(кино)аппарат (а не камера)

data n данные (а не дата)

fabric n фабрикат, ткань, изделие (а не фабрика)

graph n график, диаграмма (а не графа)

graphic а наглядный, графический (а не график)

instance n пример, случай и др. (а не инстанция)

list n список, перечень, инвентарь и др. (а не лист)

magazine n журнал, склад боеприпасов (а не магазин)

manufacture n производство и др. (а не мануфактура)

principal а главный (а не принципиальный)

Перевод таких слов нужно запомнить.

CONTENTS.

1. UNIT 1. __________________________________ p. 2

2. UNIT 2. __________________________________ p. 9

3. UNIT 3. __________________________________ p. 14

4. UNIT 4.___________________________________ p. 20

5. UNIT 5.___________________________________ p. 24

ПЛЮХИНА ИРИНА ВИКТОРОВНА

заведующий кафедрой

УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКОЕ ПОСОБИЕ

по дисциплине

ИНОСТРАННЫЙ ЯЗЫК

Специальность 220201 «Управление и информатика в технических системах

Очно-заочная форма обучения

Множительная мастерская Технологического института (филиала)

Рекомендовано к печати на заседании кафедры иностранных языков, 2008 г.

Т ираж 16 экз. Сдано в печать____________