The place of Feedback in Increasing learner Motivation

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1: Review of Literature on Motivation in Language Learning and Teaching

1.1. Theoretical Definitions of Motivation

1.2 Language Learning and Motivation

1.2.1. Primary or Intrinsic Motivation

1.2.2. Secondary or Extrinsic Motivation

1.3 What Motivates a Learner?

1.4 Motivation in EFL: Defining Motivated, Demotivated Learner

Chapter 2. Previous Studies on the Role of Feedback in EFL Classroom

2.1 What is Feedback?

2.2 Types of Feedback: Indirect and Direct

2.3 Modes of Providing Feedback: Oral and Written

2.4 Using Feedback

Chapter 3. Practical Part: The Role of Feedback in Motivating a Learner (in the example of writing activities)

3.1 Impact of Feedback on Achievement

3.2 The Impact of Feedback on Learner Motivation

CONCLUSION

THE LIST OF REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION

Twenty three years have passed since the declaration of our Republic’s Independence and many changes in the sphere of economy, policy, culture and education have taken place during this period.

In the recent years there has been a massive increase in teaching languages at schools. English is in demand at schools even in lower primary classes. Teachers need to find interesting and enjoyable ways in order to involve children in successful learning process and enhance their progress, which is mostly not an easy task.

One of the most common beliefs is that teaching English to children is a an easy task.

Many English teachers would probably agree that it is easy to establish a good learning atmosphere in a young learners classroom. At this stage, children, especially those up to the age of ten, show enthusiasm for learning. One of the most effective ways of organizing lessons of children is recognition of their characteristics, cognitive and psycological factors influencing to the process of learning. Many teachers are led by their inner teaching intuitions in designing tasks, predicting demands of learners and usually they are misled by these intuitions. We think that understanding young learners’ characteristics, both physically and psychologically is important in teaching any subject.

Topicality of the research problem can be viewed in the necessity of studying issues of teaching English theoretically and practically. As we mentioned above teaching English is becoming essential part of public education in our country and effective motivation of learners towards the learning of languages is considered as one of the topical issues in modern day methodology. Many researchers of language teaching methodology are working on designing curriculum, materials and other aids for teaching foreign languages to children and adolescents. In designing these tasks, activities and materials for learners it is crucial to know and take into account their psychological and other characteristics. Thus we think studying the theoretical issues of the role of feedback and learner motivation in teaching is very important.

The aim of the research is to study the impact of feedback on increasing learners’ motivation.

According to the main aim of the research the below given research tasks were set:

• to review theoretical literature on motivation and its types;

• to define motivated, demotivated learners in teaching English;

• to study the role of feedback in teaching and learning;

• to investigate sources on the effectiveness of providing feedback in increasing learners’ motivation.

Novelty and results of the research. In carrying out the research I reviewed literature on theory of language teaching and psychology of language learners. Theoretical views of such psychologists as Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and Jerome Bruner were reviewed during the research. According to our research motivational factors are considered essential in choosing a correct feedback techniques in motivating learners to learn.

Scientific scrutiny of the research. The research topic of the given qualification paper was the object of study for many scientists and scholars of language teaching methodology. The problems of teaching English and motivation was studied by Brumfit Ch. (1991), psychology of learners and their motivation in language acquisition was explored by Donaldson M., Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, Harmer Jeremy (2000) brings forward the principles of designing language courses, the issues of designing language courses was also studied by J.C. Richards.

Objects of the research: We took theoretical opinions on psychological and cognitive factors influencing motivation to lear a language as an object of our research.

Methods of the research. In carrying out the research we used the method of literature analysis in studying the works of outstanding educators on young learners’ motivation and language learning abilities and the role of feedback in increasing learner motivation, the method of contrasting and comparing was used in defining different opinions of different scientists on feedback and motivation in language acquisition.

Practical value of the qualification paper and its results: The results of the research are to our mind is applicable in teaching English as a foreign language by teachers in their practice. Materials brought about in the paper are also useful for students of foreign languages departments in studying the course of English language teaching methodology. Moreover, information given in the paper are also applicable in doing reports, synopses and course papers on language teaching methodology.

Structure of the qualification paper: The present qualification paper consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusion and the references part.

Introduction gives brief overview of the work done and presents characteristics of the research.

The first chapter is dedicated to the analysis of literature on the issues of motivation in education and deals mainly with literature review on theory of motivation and learners.

The second chapter deals with the definition of feedback in teaching and learning foreign languages.

The third chapter presents the analysis of feedback and its impact on learner achievement and motivation.

The list of used literature comprises more than 30 books and materials and resources on language teaching theory.

CHAPTER 1: Review of Literature on Motivation in Language Learning and Teaching

1.1. Theoretical Definitions of Motivation

“A motive is any internal agent that leads a human or another organism to an activity. Motivation is understood as directing and energy ensuring of actions, or behaviour. A common feature of motives is a goal to incur certain feelings, especially pleasant, and to avoid the unpleasant ones.”

In the past, a great number of theories of motivation were developed and this concept appears in both the works of general, pedagogical and developmental psychology, on which the presented work is built, as well as in other fields of psychology, e.g. psychology of work. This concept is understood differently by the authors.

Motivation can objectively be seen as a force that compels people to achieve certain goals, and in a certain way. These goals are created by a human either himself/herself or they are designated by someone else. Motives are understood as sets of incentives that are different and interdependent. They lead to the successful achievement of goals. For a motivated individual, it is important to be attracted by these goals. In his works the psychologist Nakonečný¹ indicates that motivation also explains the reasons of orientation of different people on different goals.

Ur mentions the term motivated learners instead of the abstract term motivation as it is easier to define as one who invests time and effort in learning and progress².

For Harmer, motivation is a type of international drive - something that pushes people to do what they have set as goals. He distinguishes between long-term and short-term goals and claims that those learners who have set long-term goals and are highly-motivated are easier to teach³.

As stated above, it is possible to find numerous definitions of motivation in the subject-field literature; these definitions only use different words or word order. However, the main function of motivation is unquestionably a satisfaction of needs. Motives can be classified in various ways; the subject-field literature most often refers to two large groups of needs. Primary biological needs are common to all people. Some of the basic physiological needs - drinking, sleeping, need for safety and security are especially important in childhood.⁴

“They are the most basic, most powerful and most urgent of all human needs, ensuring the survival of human as a biological organism.”

The second group consists of acquired needs referred to as primary psychological needs.

The secondary needs can only be satisfied after satisfying the primary needs. The needs to be satisfied often overlap; the individual may be motivated by several needs at once. In some cases, the consequence is a conflict of needs - satisfying one need can only be realised when neglecting the other need. An example of such a situation can be seen in the everyday life of a child of school age. The child longs to play or go out with his/her peers; however at the same time he/she has to prepare for school duties. He/she satisfies either the need of self-actualization and starts learning, or satisfies the need for contact with peers. Here, it is important to concentrate on the own arrangement of values, but also, for example, to consider the influence of the environment.

It is necessary to point out that psychological needs are markedly formed by learning. This group includes the need for cognition, the need for fun and games and the dominating needs are social needs - the need for social contact, the need for autonomy, etc. The process of satisfying the respective need usually lasts unless it is satisfied and the goal is reached. To achieve the goal also requires intensifying the efforts. This intensity is reflected not only in the efforts made, but also in the process of overcoming obstacles.

1.2 Language Learning and Motivation

“Motivation is one of the most important factors of learning.”

School motivation is not only the motivation for learning, but also the motivation for socializing, self-development, and friendship. The most important part of school motivation is definitely the motivation for learning. It is considered to be a decisive factor in education. To properly motivate the pupils, the teacher has to be familiar with the respective types of motivation and these should be sensitively selected. Each student is an individual and is affected by a different kind of motivation. When selecting the wrong type of motivation, the child may not only learn ineffectively, but he/she may also develop an averse to the curriculum or the subject taught. The ways of how to motivate the pupil for learning are numerous. A classification of motivation that is most frequently encountered in the subject-field literature is an intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

1.2.1. Primary or Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation, or primary motivation, is understood as reasons coming directly from us. Usually these are the reasons for our needs - we would like to play because we enjoy it. The intrinsic motivation of the pupil means that he/she has a self-desire to learn, i.e. this desire is based on his/her longing for knowledge, on the very joy of performing the relevant activity. Therefore, the intrinsic motives lead to satisfaction of the needs - the desire for knowledge, inquisitiveness, emotional and social security needs... The pupil who is aware of the need for education seems to be more mature compared with his/her peers who do not realize this need. Thus, the intrinsic motivation can be understood as the effort that leads to a set goal. However, this goal is set by the pupil himself/herself and is based on his/her individual decision. The importance of individual goals is based on the subjective attitude that has been created by the individual during his/her life. The child creates these attitudes in interaction with its surroundings, mostly the family. The intrinsic motivation occurs when these attitudes are adopted by the child.

Harmer claims that the teacher is the most important person responsible for what happens in the classroom and in that way influences learners´intrinsic motivation. He further states that success and failure are closely connected with motivation and that learners´previous experience in foreign language learning can influence how well or bad results will the learner achieve and can have a big impact on the whole language learning⁵.

1.2.2. Secondary or Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic motivation - secondary – is understood as the motivation that does not satisfy our need. “Motives are implicitly connected with the subject and relevant teaching activity”. The child learns things that he/she is not interested in, but mastering the task promises a reward. The extrinsic motivations in school include, in particular, grades, rewards and punishment. According to Čáp, many authors have rightfully criticized the traditional methods of pupil’s coercion – by the amount of rewards and punishment used. Other authors point out, also rightfully, that over-estimation of child's inquisitiveness and catchiness of the curriculum can lead to separation of the curriculum from practice.

The effectiveness of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation also depends on the age of the child. The extrinsic motivation is important for smaller children who obey their parents and teachers. However during adolescence, the importance of extrinsic motivation is gradually lost being replaced by intrinsic motivation, which is considered much more effective than the extrinsic motivation so in school it should be preferred.

Harmer states that the learners with extrinsic motivation are more affected with activities that take place outside the class. He later divides extrinsic motivation into integrative and instrumental motivation. Students with a strong integrative motivation are those who want to be acquainted with culture, gain some information and become a part of the target community. On the contrary, learners who study a language for different purposes like finding a good job are said to be affected with instrumental motivation.

1.3 What Motivates a Learner?

According to Čáp the factors affecting motivation for learning can be divided into six groups.

1/ Novelty of situation, subject or activity

The pupil at any age is attracted by what is new. Already the beginning of the school attendance can be seen as a new situation favourable for the emergence of a new interest. This experience is, inter alia, a supporting basis for illustrative teaching. The curriculum may be submitted as an intriguing puzzle, and to solve it the pupils need a new textbook or teaching aid. Illustrative presentation of the curriculum is then attractive for the child because of his/her inquisitiveness and strongly motivates him/her to learn. Here, too, pedagogical expertise is necessary because too much of the new and unknown can act oppressively and raise fears in children.

2/ Pupil’s activity and satisfaction from it

The activity itself and the resulting joy bring satisfaction to the child. The motivation has already been caused by the fact that the child does not play a passive role. Learning activities in this sense follow the games which have a strong motivational effect. At the beginning of school attendance, this activity is represented by e.g. drawing or reading. With increasing age, technical activities are added as well as handling of different devices.

The combination of these two groups of factors affecting the motivation for learning leads to a strong motivational effect, especially when the pupils themselves participate in „discovering“ the new.

3/ Success in the activity

The child takes pleasure in the activity itself, but he/she experiences it even more intensively via achieving good results. “The success also boosts self-esteem, self-confidence, pupil’s certainty, his/her image of himself/herself. This usually improves the emotional state favourable for performance while increasing the motivation for this activity that led to success.”

As Čáp further states, the rate of success and failure depends on the degree of complexity of tasks. The success in demanding activities is more pleasing than a well done easy activity. Too simple tasks make the activity less interesting while a difficult task, even if unsuccessful, can motivate the pupil. On this principle, a theory called Work with mistake is based. The child, even if assisted by the teacher, finds a mistake - and this can be considered a success. This method is very effective especially for slower children who make mistakes more often; the mistake is considered to be a task. Very important is the ratio between the success and the failure. As already mentioned, easy successes do not motivate the pupil; on the other hand, too difficult tasks and the related failure can discourage the pupil.

4/ Social moments

Children and adolescents are strongly influenced by how they are evaluated by the surroundings. At first, the child strives to achieve a positive evaluation from parents and teachers. Later, with increasing age, the child is more dependent on the evaluation of peers and the individuals to whom the child has a strong emotional relationship. Motivation for the activity is higher if the pupil carries out this activity together with an individual or a group to which he/she has a positive relationship. In this group of motivators, Čáp refers to competition. Using competitions creates further moments leading to success or failure. In teaching process the competition is a sensitive element as a continuous failure leads to frustration and loss of interest.

5/ Relation between new activities and previous experience and interests

The school teacher builds on the experience already acquired, uses the interests of children. A transition to a new activity can start from compliance with the activity that has already been known.

6/ Relation between the activity and life perspectives

Motivation for learning arises and deepens in the case when the pupil himself/herself sees and understands where a new skill or knowledge is useful. English teaching is based on this motivation and since the beginning the teacher, along with children, has been searching for the moments in which situations the particular knowledge and skills are necessary.

1.4 Motivation in EFL: Defining Motivated, Demotivated Learner

Similarly to the other subjects, the pupils in English lessons can be motivated through intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. The most common extrinsic motivators are rewards and punishments. There is no uniform view of rewarding and punishing. At school we use a praise and rebuke, good or bad grades. The performance of child can be negatively affected by both often praising (the pupil becomes apathetic to the praise if there is no effort to be proved), and also by often rebuking. It is correct when the praise prevails, then it motivates the pupil to make further efforts. However, he/she must be aware that it was deserved.

Rewards and punishments are among the most popular educational tools. Apart from their inclusion among the motivators, they can also be considered as factors providing consolidation, strengthening, creation of temporary connections, conditioning. A reward expresses a positive social assessment, brings satisfaction to the individual and is therefore linked with desirable conduct and behaviour.

However, there are some authors who do not agree with the use of prizes and physical rewards and even warn against their use in classes. The reason is the fact there is always somebody who is a looser (an individual or a team) and not receiving a reward only strenghtens the feeling of failure. Instead of giving such physical rewards, it is much more advisable to express the praise via positive feedback, reading the winner´s work in front of the class or displaying it on the noticeboard. “Include, do not exclude.”⁶

In foreign language teaching we can also use motivational games that are of long-term nature; such games will be described in the practical part of this work. They are invaluable particularly at lower grade of primary school. They can have a nature of collecting various points, pictures, etc. for a predetermined period, with clearly defined rules.

Motivation is the driving force by which humans achieve their goals. Motivation is said to be intrinsic or extrinsic. The term is generally used for humans but it can also be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation. According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in a basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a desired object, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism, selfishness, morality, or avoiding mortality. Conceptually, motivation should not be confused with either volition or optimism. Motivation is related to, but distinct from, emotion.

Learners who have integrative motivation are innately inclined to develop skills and carry out learning related activities. External reinforcement is not necessary because learning is inherently reinforced. Such learners find the process of learning satisfying.

According to Falk, successful learners are those who have friendly approaches to people who speak the language, have admiration towards the culture, and have a wish to become familiar with the society in which the language is used. This type of motivation is known as integrative motivation. The main idea here is that the learners receive a kind of satisfaction from learning and studies for reasons of their own.

In this type, the learner studies or learns for other reasons. Such a student’s performance results from the desire to receive a reward or to avoid a penalty. It is characterized by the wish to obtain something concrete from the study of foreign language learning. Another purpose of language learning in this context may be the need to meet the requirements for school.

To sum up, in contrast to pupils who have integrative motivation, pupils who have instrumental motivation always need to be guided by outside factors in order to continue with their education of foreign language.

Although, both integrative and instrumental types are essential characteristics of success, it is the integrative motivation which has long-term effects or results. Instrumental motivation can be accepted as useful when there is no aim of communication in the target language such that language learning is realized purposes such as passing classes.

It is commonly known that behavioral problems always seem to be resultant from lack of motivation. It is important to realize that obtaining effective outcomes from foreign language learning and teaching strongly depends on the degree of the motivation of learners. There are some observable characteristics of motivated pupils.

Motivated learners approach tasks enthusiastically. They smile and get excited very often throughout the lesson.

These kinds of behavior are experienced in everyday classes of young learners.

We, as teachers have sometimes motivated, demotivated and unmotivated students. For instance, when we enter the classroom, it is seen that some students immediately get up and run towards their lockers and take their books. They seem to be really motivated from the very beginning. Throughout the lesson, they listen to instructions very carefully to achieve assigned tasks. They have a natural tendency to enjoy the lesson. It is easily noticed that they struggle to learn very quickly before other pupils and they start to use what is taught and then they become really happy as a result of their achievement in the target language. It is observed that their learning is permanent as they use the means in some situations at different times. These are intrinsically motivated learners. However, there are other students to be mentioned in this context.

They are also motivated but the difference is that they are motivated extrinsically. When they see the teacher, the first question they ask is ‘today do you have any stickers or surprises for us?’ When they are assigned some tasks, it is clear that they complete the tasks for rewards. In this respect, Lile presents an example for an intrinsically motivated learner:

An intrinsically motivated student studies because he/she wants to study. The material is interesting, challenging and rewarding, and the student receives some kind of satisfaction from learning. I have one such student. She never misses a homework, is always using her dictionary when a word comes up she doesn't know, and as a result of these kinds of habits she always does well on her tests. One time I just checked to see if the students had their homework done or not, and after class she asked me if she had any mistakes on her homework or not. She prefers tasks that are moderately challenging. She demands more effort from herself and has a need for deep understanding. To have an intrinsically motivated student is the goal of all motivational development.

Considering all these characteristics, it is fair to state that a motivated learner is someone who loves and enjoys the experience of language learning as well as valuing it.

Like motivated learners, demotivated ones have also observable characteristics as they always exhibit their level of motivation through their approaches towards the lesson or tasks.

Such kinds of learners may have poor concentration and low self-esteem. They often make little or no effort to learn. They may occasionally distract other pupils, shout out with no reasons, and fail to bring their materials to classes⁷.

Chambers, in this respect, lists the characteristics of such disaffected learners:

· Non-completion of assignments,

· Lack of persistence and expectation of failure when attempting new tasks,

· High level of dependency on sympathetic teachers (needing constant attention, direction, supervision and reassurance),

· Signs of anxiety, frustration and defensive behavior,

· Disruptive or withdrawn behavior,

· Non-participation in the classroom,

· Frequent expression of view that school or the particular task is boring and irrelevant.

Unmotivated learners may be regarded as those hard to cope with. As they do not have any motivation to learn from the very beginning, it may be very struggling for the teacher to make them eager to learn. Thus, it can be inferredthat they are different from demotivated learners in that they do not lose their enthusiasm since they had none in the first place.

Chapter 2. Previous Studies on the Role of Feedback in EFL Classroom

2.1 What is Feedback?

Feedback (or ‘response’) is defined by Hattie and Timperley as ‘information provided by an agent regarding aspects of one’s performance or understanding’. The purpose of feedback is to reduce the distance between current understandings and the goal. Feedback is an immense topic within L2 writing development and something teachers spend much time on. Some teachers spend much time in giving feedback, doing it thoroughly and detailed, thinking that the student’s writing improves ‘in direct proportion to the amount of time teachers spend on their papers’. Feedback is the central topic of this qualification work.

In this section, the topics that will be elaborated upon when it comes to feedback are the teacher’s role, signs of effective feedback, indirect and direct feedback, effects of feedback, oral and written feedback, timing of feedback and, finally, students’ preferences in terms of to feedback.

The writing teacher has many different roles. Grabe and Kaplan express them as follows:

In planning a writing curriculum, the teacher must at various times be a motivator, an interpreter of the task, a designer of meaningful tasks, an organizer, a resource, a support person, an evaluator, and a reader for information.

Teachers have many tasks to accomplish while reading students’ texts. They have a minimum of three roles to fill in this area⁸. They are readers, in other words the audience, trainers in the field (coaches) and evaluators. This is a complex task with many aspects.

However, in a study conducted by Cohen and Cavalcanti⁹, all students involved except one viewed the teacher as a ‘judge’, in other words an evaluator.

Ferris points out that giving feedback is very challenging for writing instructors and that preparing future teachers to give good feedback is important. Ferris’ approach to teaching future teachers to respond to writing is by using a structure that contains the elements ‘approach’, ‘response’ and ‘follow-up’¹⁰. When Ferris goes through the topic of ‘approach’, she presents different ways of giving feedback to writing and different questions and issues to be aware of when it comes to giving feedback. First, she asks the future student teachers to reflect on the feedback they have been given by their previous teachers on their own writing as students. Secondly, she asks of different principles of responding, so that they have knowledge of what to do when they need to respond to their students’ writing in the future. These principles are, for example, to use a mixture of different types of teacher feedback, as well as peer feedback and self-assessment.

Then Ferris¹¹ considers the topic of ‘response’. When the future teachers work with this topic, they must decide on which approach they are going to use as teachers. By doing this, they will have thought through principles that will guide them in their future work. Ferris stresses the importance of choosing some areas of importance to comment on, so that there is a balance in the feedback and so that it is easily applicable for the students. The progress itself is the important focus, and if the teachers focus on a few areas in their writing in their feedback, it is more likely that they will apply the feedback to their writing. There are devices that can help the teacher with the choice of what areas to comment in the students’ writing. Rubrics, grading criteria, the task type and the individual student give good indicators on where to begin. Ferris continues with suggestions on how to give clear feedback.

The third area Ferris¹² focuses on with her future student teachers is ‘follow-up’. Here three aspects are important. Firstly, the future teachers should teach their students how to apply the feedback. Secondly, they should learn how to evaluate their own feedback. Thirdly, they must practise three ways of giving feedback (handwritten, conference and electronic feedback) with an L2 student writer (they were all connected to one).

Feedback can lead to improvement and learning. However, improvement and learning depend on how and when the feedback is given. Some aspects that can lead to effective feedback are presented in this subsection. Hattie and Timperley claim that in order to be effective, ‘there must be a learning context to which feedback is addressed’. It is when the students do work with the feedback that learning happens.

There are three questions that the teacher and/or the student must answer with regard to giving and receiving effective feedback. Firstly, they must ask: ‘Where am I going?’ Secondly, ‘How am I going?’ The third question is ‘Where to next?’ These three questions are connected and can be an indicator of effective feedback. The teacher’s role and task is to guide and help students move from question one to question two and, finally, being able to answer question three.

In relation to the first question, Leki claims that it is important to know what the goals are in order to give effective feedback. The feedback should be in accordance with those goals. Learning objectives for English in Norwegian schools are laid down in the LK06 curriculum. In order to be efficient, feedback should also be specific and give guidelines that students are able to follow. The teacher should also find something to praise initially before giving instructions on what to work with.

Polio concludes with three points that are important to emphasise in order for the feedback to be successful. One is that students need to pay attention to the feedback. As Polio puts it: ‘Correcting errors on the final version of a paper seems essentially useless if learners do not have to do anything with the feedback’. The second point is that the feedback needs to be on the right level for the students. This point is based on sociocultural theory, and implies the need of individual feedback in student conferences or with a combination of oral and written individual feedback¹³. Hattie and Timperley also stress this second point. The third point Polio concludes with is that implicit and explicit knowledge and the interactions between them are useful in writing.

It is also important that the feedback and the suggestions for revising are clear, specific and easy for the student to follow. A simple ‘revise’ will not be enough for the student to know what to do. This point is supported by a study conducted by Fathman and Whalley¹⁴. The students involved in the study received feedback on both content and form, but the improvements were most noticeable when it came to form. They suggest that the reason for this is because the feedback on form was more specific and easier to follow than the feedback on content, which was more general.

However, this study also showed that revising without teacher feedback could be effective and valuable. Improvements were found in students’ texts even though they had not received teacher feedback. This shows that simply revising in itself is important and saves teachers’ time.

Another study, Chandler, also confirms the importance of feedback and selfediting.

It shows that the form in writing improves considerably when the students need to correct their errors, in comparison to if they are not required to do so. When the students in this study corrected their errors before starting on their next assignment, their first drafts improved during the semester. This shows that self-editing and correction gives longitudinal effects. Ashwell also shows in his research that feedback helps students to improve their writing more than if the students get no feedback.

2.2 Types of Feedback: Indirect and Direct

Feedback on form has its many different varieties, and one distinction is between indirect and direct feedback. Direct feedback is when the teacher gives the exact correction needed, so that the student only needs to rewrite it in the text. Indirect feedback is when the teacher points out the error, but does not give the correction, so that the student needs to make the right correction him/herself. Research has shown that the most preferable type of feedback method is indirect feedback, because it ‘helps students to make progress in accuracy over time more than direct feedback does’.

Ferris and Roberts investigated in their study how explicit the indirect error feedback needs to be in L2 writing classes in order to help students edit their texts themselves. They used three types of feedback, one type for each group of students: Firstly, errors were code-marked in five categories. Code marking is when the teacher categorizes errors and highlights them codes for the categories. One example is that the code ‘sp’ stands for ‘spelling’, ‘wo’ stands for ‘wrong order’ or ‘p’ stands for ‘punctuation’. When doing this, the teacher does not correct the errors for the students but guides them to correct them themselves. Secondly, the same types of error were only underlined, and thirdly no feedback was used. The results showed major differences between the group that did not receive any feedback and the two groups that did receive feedback. However, there were no big differences between the two feedback groups. Their conclusions were that the feedback does not have to be as explicit as code marking in order to help students to self-edit their texts well. This means that teachers can use the second type of feedback, underlining, and gain the same effects as if they used the first type of feedback, categorization feedback. This procedure can save much time for teachers, since the underlining takes less time than code marking.

Another scholar, Chandler, investigated how feedback should be given, more specifically in terms of grammatical and lexical errors. When comparing different ways of giving feedback to error, for example the teacher correcting directly, just pointing errors out or coding them, Chandler found that both direct teacher correction and underlining were more efficient than code marking, at least for reducing long-term errors.

The conclusion to be made in this sub-section is that indirect feedback can be an effective way of giving feedback, and is no way inferior to direct feedback. On the contrary, both Ferris and Roberts and Chandler suggest that indirect feedback may be the best feedback type of the two.

2.3 Modes of Providing Feedback: Oral and Written

There is also a distinction between oral and written feedback. Written feedback can be given at every stage of the writing process and can be an efficient way for students to remember the feedback they have received. Oral feedback can also be given at every stage, but one downside with this form of feedback is that students may easier forget it. However, the use of body language and the possibility for asking questions at the same time as the feedback is given, are positive traits of this type of feedback.

Leki suggests that teachers give written feedback because they believe that it improves their students’ writing, but also because they need to justify the evaluations they make. She also states that written feedback is indeed time consuming. Polio confirms that: ‘Written error correction is probably the most time consuming practice teachers use’. Hyland also suggests that written feedback may not be as effective as one has hoped, because the feedback itself may be of bad quality and misunderstood by the students.

Feedback is one important aspect of developing writing in a ZPD process. A study in the context of written corrective feedback in a scaffolding setting was done by Aljaafreh and Lantofl, cited in Polio. Three students met with a tutor who helped them develop their ZPD in terms of editing errors in writing. During the eight weeks of the study, the improvement was noticeable and the independence in editing written errors increased. Other studies in this area have been by Brooks and Swain and Storch and Wigglesworth, cited in Polio.

Oral feedback in, for example, one-to-one conferences, is considered an effective way of providing feedback, since there is interaction between the student and the teacher. Oral feedback is an effective way of understanding what the students are trying to say in their texts, because they get a chance to explain and answer questions. The dialogue between the students and the teacher is important. Oral feedback also makes it easier for the student to ask questions if there is something that is not understood. However, one unsatisfactory trait with this type of feedback is that it demands much time.

Research has shown that a combination of oral and written feedback can be a good solution, especially for the more ‘treatable types of linguistic error’, for example the tenses and articles. The reason why this is a good solution is that the teacher has individual time with the students where they can explain the rules that are connected to the errors they have made, and the teacher can make sure that the students understand the feedback. In this setting, the teacher and students can discuss, clarify vagueness and explain in a more individual context. When the feedback is only written, there is less opportunity to discuss and explain on an individual level and the students do not have much opportunity to ask about elements they are uncertain of. A good key to provide effective feedback is to use a combination of the two. The issue here is whether teachers have the time to do this, as oral feedback is time consuming.

2.4 Using Feedback

One way to support students’ learning is through the use of effective feedback practices. Feedback is considered a form of formative assessment and is among the most critical influences on student learning since it is used to help students identify gaps in their knowledge and to give them the next steps in closing those gaps. However, there is a great deal of variability in the literature about feedback, making it difficult to come to a conclusion about what makes feedback work; there is no “best” approach for all learners, all environments, or all tasks.

But it has been shown that formative feedback can improve students’ learning and enhance teachers’ teaching to the extent that learners are receptive and the feedback is valid, objective, specific and clear. This section of the review will discuss the forms and uses of feedback.

As discussed in Chapter One, feedback can have many definitions and purposes. Hattie and Timperley identify feedback as “information provided by an agent regarding aspects of one’s performance or understanding”. Shute¹⁵ describes feedback as “information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify his or her thinking or behavior for the purpose of improving learning”. Kluger and DeNisi describe feedback as “information provided by an external agent regarding some aspect(s) of the learner’s task performance, intended to modify the learner’s cognition, motivation, and/or behavior”. Ramaprasad defined feedback as the “information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a system parameter which is used to alter the gap in some way”. To summarize, from an educator’s standpoint, feedback is information given to a student that is constructed with the intention of helping that student close the gap between their existing knowledge and the set learning objective. To close that gap, feedback must answer three major questions asked by a teacher and/or student: 1. Where am I going? (What are the goals I’m trying to reach?) 2. How am I going? (What progress am I making toward the goals? 3. Where to next? (What do I need to do in order to make better progress?).

There are several different forms that feedback can take, and different levels or tasks at which feedback can be directed in order to help students meet their goals or predetermined objectives. In their meta-analysis about the power of feedback, Hattie and Timperley¹⁶ identify four major levels of feedback including feedback about a task (whether a work is correct or incorrect), feedback aimed at the process used to complete the task, feedback on self-regulation (informs how to better and more effortlessly continue on the task), and feedback about the self (for example, “you are a great student”). This present study will focus on feedback directed toward the task and process. In addition, feedback at the different levels can also have different functions; directive feedback can tell a student what needs to be fixed or revised using specific details, while facilitative feedback provides comments and suggestions to help guide the student in the revision process. Directive and facilitative feedback are parallel to the two types of feedback information, verification and elaboration, discussed by Kulhavy and Stock. Researchers are leaning toward the view that effective feedback should include elements of both, as there is growing consensus that the combination of the two can increase student achievement more than other types of feedback.

Though there is no “perfect” solution for feedback delivery, there are a number of recommendations provided from past studies on feedback. Above all, feedback should always remain objective and work to reduce the discrepancies between present performance and the learner’s goals. To do this, feedback should be focused on the task, not on the learner. Feedback should provide students with elaboration on next steps to take; highly specific comments are more helpful than vague statements. However, feedback should not be presented to students in copious amounts at one time, but should be specific and clear and kept as simple as possible without losing the intended message. If teachers write too many comments, or the comments use academic language the student does not understand, students will get overwhelmed and become unmotivated because all of their work has been doubted and they are not sure how to move forward. Though the literature provides guidance on the most useful kinds of feedback, it has not identified a solution to the problem of overloading students with corrections and comments that would be tempting to ignore as a student. To minimize this problem, it may be helpful to focus on providing feedback to one aspect of the task at a time and to discuss vocabulary and expectations prior to the assignment of the task. Overall, in order to be effective, feedback must be combined with effective instruction.

In addition to the specific instructional practices and methods used for delivering feedback, the timing of feedback can also play a role in its effectiveness. There are mixed results on feedback timing within the literature consulted, but cases for both immediate and delayed feedback will be discussed here. Immediate feedback is administered right after a student has responded to or completed a task, or in summative assessment, right after the assessment has been completed. At the process level, it is said that this type of feedback can be beneficial because the earlier corrective information is provided, the more likely it is that retention will result and errors will not be encoded into memory. Delayed feedback is usually defined relative to immediate feedback and may occur minutes, hours, weeks, or longer after the completion of the task. Support for delayed feedback comes from the interference-perseveration hypothesis proposed by Kulhavy and Anderson¹⁷ that argues that if feedback is delayed, it allows the initial errors to be forgotten and the correct information to be encoded in memory with no interference. Additional research proposes that feedback timing should be aligned with the task and/or the desired outcome of the task. For relatively simple tasks use delayed feedback, for difficult tasks use immediate feedback; for retention of procedural or conceptual knowledge, use immediate feedback, and to promote transfer, consider delayed feedback. Furthermore, formative comments on a first draft of writing may be more helpful than comments on a final draft because once a final draft has been turned in, there may be less incentive to process the information at a deep level and incorporate it into future writing tasks. Overall, there are inconsistent findings in feedback timing, but an interesting observation is that many field studies (such as those that take place in classrooms) value immediate feedback, while studies that take place in labs show positive effects of delayed feedback.

Another variable in feedback delivery is the format in which it is administered. Feedback can be provided by teacher, peers, or other mentors, and it can be delivered verbally (audio), through written comments, or by using new technologies. According to Parr and Timperley, oral feedback is essential to learning. This verbal feedback can be provided during instructional time, or during a scheduled conference. Written comments have also proven an effective form of feedback and there is considerable evidence that proves written comments are more effective than providing students with a grade. When providing written comments, it is recommended that comments be located directly next to the areas that need revision. Peer feedback is also a valuable form of feedback, and can come in the forms of editing suggestions or peer response to content of the task. This form of feedback can be used to increase the amount of practice assigned to students without increasing the time it takes instructors to grade assignments, and it has proven to be even more effective in increasing quality of writing between drafts than when the instructor provides feedback, However, if not supported by the teacher, this feedback strategy can fall flat. Just as the use of word-processing became the norm, spell checking, grammar checking, and plagiarism detection software are now prominent. Computerized feedback technology can lend itself to immediate feedback and cut down on the amount of time it takes instructors to provide feedback, but more research is needed to determine its effectiveness in increasing student learning. Of all of the feedback formats available, it has been shown that students think written feedback is more helpful than audio feedback (especially when feedback is given on citations and issues with conventions), but that a combination of both is the most effective. All of the suggestions offered for administering feedback can have an impact on the way the feedback is received, which in turn has proven to affect the level of achievement of the receiver.

Chapter 3. Practical Part: The Role of Feedback in Motivating a Learner (in the example of writing activities)

3.1 Impact of Feedback on Achievement

In their 2007 meta-analysis, Hattie and Timperley¹⁸ identified feedback as one of the top ten highest influences on student achievement. However, it has been proven in various studies that the type of feedback and the way it is administered can impact achievement differently in different settings. And while most of the research proves that feedback has a positive impact on achievement, the majority of studies on the positive impact of feedback ignore the fact that there are also studies that show feedback having a negative impact. In their meta-analysis, Black and Wiliam (1998) reported that in 40% of the 131 studies they analyzed, feedback had a negative impact on student performance. In addition, more recent studies demonstrate that students’ performance worsens if feedback is focused on the individual self, rather than on the task or process. However, Butler found that student performance is higher after receiving some feedback as opposed to receiving just grades or no feedback at all. The common practice of praising performance and providing students with grades has the potential to impair, as well as benefit performance. The overall conclusion is that feedback can promote learning and achievement if it is specific and focuses on what needs to be done to improve performance, and when it provides the recipient with the steps or strategies needed to make those improvements. The goal is to provide students with feedback that promotes learning by requiring students to think critically about revisions, not to provide students with answers or fix their discrepancies for them.

While looking at the impact of feedback overall is beneficial to the study, the impact of feedback on writing instruction specifically needs to be examined. Though teachers of writing spend an immense amount of time providing students with feedback on their writing, there is a limited amount of research available on the effects of that feedback. In fact, both Hattie and Timperley’s¹⁹ and Graham and Perin’s meta-analyses point out that feedback in adolescent writing is so under researched that it can rarely be included when looking at instruction that impacts the quality of writing. The little research existing shows that feedback is an instructional practice that enhances both students’ skills and motivation and should lead to improved writing. To provide more detail, in their 2010 study Duijnhouwer et al., concluded that “In general, feedback cues that direct attention to task-motivation processes or task-learning processes – coupled with corrective information on erroneous ideas or hypotheses – are assumed to enhance feedback effects on performance”. And in their 2012 study, they concluded that both improvement strategies and reflection on feedback can be beneficial to performance, but using them simultaneously can be detrimental. Kellogg and Whiteford²⁰ found that teacher-supported peer feedback processes could increase writing achievement. Wingate²¹ confirmed the effectiveness of formative feedback as an instructional method, in that it enabled students in her study to make quicker progress in their academic writing than they would in other university programs.

Though the studies provide relevant information, many of them are conducted with university students, which can make it difficult to apply their implications to the adolescents in the present study focusing specifically on middle school students.

In conclusion, feedback has been proven to be one of the most powerful influences on learning (positive or negative) and needs to be more fully researched both qualitatively and quantitatively in order to better understand how feedback works in the classroom, on learning processes, and more specifically, during the writing process. The research on feedback discussed here touches on the ability of feedback to impact motivation, but further explanation is needed in order to better understand the concept of motivation and form conclusions about the relationship between the two.

3.2 The Impact of Feedback on Learner Motivation

In the field of education, there are many factors that can support intrinsic motivation and many forces that can pose as threats, or undermine motivation²², with one of the common factors being feedback. The positive effects of progress feedback on performance have been shown in a very comprehensive metaanalysis on the effects of feedback on performance. These researchers also came up with the Feedback Intervention Theory, which suggests that students’ motivation is thought of as a road through which feedback affects performance.

However, empirical research concerning the effects of feedback on motivation for writing in particular is quite limited, as most research on writing focuses on the effects of feedback on performance rather than on motivation. Nonetheless, studies on feedback and performance in other content-areas can be used to demonstrate how the nature of feedback can maintain or undermine student motivation.

Three decades of research has shown that the quality of performance can be very different when someone is behaving as a result of intrinsic versus extrinsic reasons²³. While feedback has often been thought to enhance the motivation of the recipient, there are many instances in which particular forms of feedback or improvement strategies function negatively and weaken motivation and self-efficacy. One form of feedback that often negatively impacts motivation is grades, yet this form of feedback is one of the most common forms of feedback given in schools. If not used correctly, grades may encourage an emphasis on quantitative aspects of learning, depress creativity, foster a fear of failure, cause evaluation anxiety, and undermine students’ interest and intrinsic motivation. In addition, when grades are provided as feedback, students may not know how to “decode” the grade to understand its meaning and take appropriate action.

Another form of feedback that can have negative effects on motivation is praise, as it draws attention away from the task and towards the self, which in turn has a negative impact on performance, though some students like praise when it is accompanied by an explanation. Regardless, both the form in which praise is delivered, as well as the context in which it is received can affect motivational consequences.

There is also a strong argument against using rewards and punishment; both are commonly used with the intent of motivating, but it has been demonstrated that they can have a debilitating effect on both motivation and performance. Verbal rewards are often thought to enhance intrinsic motivation, but they also have a controlling component that leads people to engage in behaviors that could result in acknowledgement or approval, which undermines intrinsic motivation; instead of completing a task for the challenge or enjoyment, people desire external rewards from others in order to complete the task, and they no longer take responsibility for motivating or regulating themselves. As noted by Kohn in 1993, when schools or other institutions use rewards to control behavior, those rewards are likely to be followed by greater surveillance, evaluation, and competition, and these too have been found to undermine intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, rewards are most damaging to motivation and interest when the task is already intrinsically motivating because there is that much more interest to lose when the extrinsic motivators are introduced. And, the more you reward someone for completing a task, the less interest that person will have in that task, and in addition, they will tend to do lower quality work in the future in comparison with those that were never offered a reward. Though punishment is considered the opposite of praise, they go hand in hand in their ability to debilitate intrinsic motivation. According to Kohn, punishment is destructive because it is another way of manipulating student behaviors²⁴.

Though interpersonal context must be considered in any feedback situation, it is important to realize that when schools focus on short term strategies that control people’s behavior, such as praise and punishment, their decision can have long-term effects students. Teachers shouldn’t use rewards or punishments to get students to do something, instead they should reconsider the task and find ways to make it more engaging for students – interesting tasks lead to intrinsic motivation.

According to Kohn, “There are at least 70 studies showing that extrinsic motivators – including A’s, sometimes praise, and other rewards – are not merely ineffective over the long haul but counterproductive with respect to the things that concern us most: desire to learn, commitment to good values, and so on” (as cited in Brandt, 1995). Furthermore, in schools, students’ intrinsic motivation appears to become weaker with each advancing grade. To combat this unfortunate reality, there are several approaches that can be taken to increase intrinsic motivation, several of which involve careful consideration of context and individual needs.

Deci and Ryan’s²⁵ Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) specifies factors in social contexts that produce variability in intrinsic motivation, and argues that, interpersonal events and structures (e.g., rewards, communications, feedback) that conduce toward feelings of competence during action can enhance intrinsic motivation for that action because they allow satisfaction of the basic psychological need for competence. Accordingly, for example, optimal challenges, effective promoting feedback, and freedom from demeaning evaluations are all predicted to facilitate intrinsic motivation. When students are able to choose a higher level of challenge, they demonstrate higher levels of intrinsic motivation and performance on future related, more complex tasks, which demonstrates the long-term effect of intrinsic motivation. As mentioned, students’ intrinsic motivation and achievement can also be enhanced or maintained through receipt of systematically designed feedback. However, it is important to remember that with regard to feedback, it has been found that self-efficacy beliefs are liable to change, even after just one single episode of teacher feedback. Thus, teachers must construct feedback carefully to ensure interest and motivation are not undermined. Lastly, learning environments have the ability to facilitate or predict intrinsic motivation by supporting versus thwarting the needs for autonomy and competence; ultimately, intrinsic motivation will only occur for activities that hold interest for an individual. And, in order to maintain constant intrinsic motivation, individuals must experience perceived self-efficacy and consider their behavior to be self-determined. In schools, this facilitation of more self-determined learning requires classroom conditions that allow satisfaction of three basic human needs: support of the innate needs to feel connected, effective, and self-reflective as one is exposed to new ideas and exercises new skills. Creating this supportive classroom environment becomes even more important when teaching the complex task of writing, as students can become increasingly discouraged by its cognitive demand. Though there is a clear relationship between feedback and motivation, there is a small body of research that focuses specifically on the impact of feedback on motivation when writing is the focus activity.

Existing Studies That Discuss the Impact of Feedback on Motivation in Writing While the impact of feedback on achievement and motivation has been discussed in various contexts, there remains a small amount of existing research that discusses the research question of how feedback can impact student motivation when writing.

In their study, Bruning and Horn discuss that in a complex task like writing, motivational issues assume particularly prominent status and it is in the hands of those who teach writing to help students develop the motivation needed to succeed. They suggest that to develop motivation for writing, there are four main conditions: (1) teachers must guide students in developing functional beliefs about writing as a difficult

task and intellectual and social tool, as well as help students develop confidence in their abilities, (2) teachers must foster student engagement by using authentic writing tasks with real audiences and purposes, (3) teachers must provide a supportive context for writing motivation which involves providing scaffolding, helping students set goals, administering feedback on progress toward goals, and teaching specific writing strategies and when to use them, and (4) teachers must create a positive emotional environment for students in which to write to offset negative self-talk and anxiety, and welcome intrinsic motivation.

In her study, Wingate found that college students who utilized feedback comments given to them on their writing improved their writing, and students who paid little attention to feedback had persistent problems in their writing. The interviews conducted in the study uncovered that some of the reasons for engaging or not engaging with the feedback provided included students’ high or low motivation based on the

enjoyment of the degree program and their self-perceptions of their writing abilities, and students’ ability levels. As a result of her findings, Wingate argues that the objective of feedback must be to encourage all students, including those with low motivation, to use it. For instance, if negative comments are directed repeatedly to low-achieving students, they will become discouraged and disregard the feedback. More research must be done to explore an effective approach for delivering constructive feedback to weaker students who become more easily overwhelmed by criticism on various topics at once.

Duijnhouwer, et al. have conducted two research studies in which feedback is linked specifically to motivation and writing. In their 2010 study, they examined the effects of progress feedback on university students’ writing mastery goal, self-efficacy beliefs, and writing performance. The experimental group received progress feedback, while the control group received feedback without progress information. The results showed that progress feedback did not affect students’ goals or performance levels, but did impact self-efficacy beliefs. This impact depended on the number of progress comments given; in order to increase self-efficacy beliefs, it was found that at least three progress comments must be given. Researchers hypothesized that progress feedback did not affect students’ mastery goals and performance because there was also a grade assigned with the feedback, or, because the mastery goal required more time and feedback than were provided in the six-week span of the study.

In their 2012 study, Duijnhouwer, et al. investigated the effects of feedback providing improvement strategies on university students’ writing motivation, writing process, and writing performance. Through their experiment, they discovered that both improvement strategies and reflection assignments can be beneficial for writing performance, but that

simultaneously using both can be detrimental to writing performance.

While the studies discussed in this section are able to show an existing relationship among writing, feedback, and motivation, the researchers also point out that there is a need for further research. Motivation plays an important role in all learning, and utilizing feedback information is one form of learning, however, researchers have paid little attention to the relationship between motivation and student engagement with feedback information. In relation, Bruning and Horn state, “Although there is a wealth of practical knowledge about writing instruction, there is still relatively little in the way of scientific analysis aimed at the motivational factors critical to writing development” (p. 26). Furthermore, Duijnhouwer et al., claim that though they have proven positive effects of feedback occur, more research is required to validate the idea that feedback can impact writing motivation. And though Graham and Perin’s previously mentioned meta-analysis does not focus on the relationship among writing, feedback, and motivation, they do state that they are unable to provide information about how any of the strategies mentioned in their research can boost motivation. All of these researchers have determined there are gaps existing in the literature provided at the time of their research.

CONCLUSION

The goal of this study is to seek for the answers of four research questions about feedback and its role in motivation of learners. It has been conducted to find out the factors which lead to motivation and demotivation of learners in class. While identifying these factors, three aspects which are closely related with the students’ motivation levels have been taken into consideration. These three aspects are; teacher attitude towards the learners, the activities and materials used in class, and lastly the classroom atmosphere. Also, the relationship between students’ motivation and accordingly their attitude towards the lesson has been discussed.

As stated before, this study aims to identify the factors leading motivation and demotivation.

As responses to these two questions question, it is found out that there are some certain external reasons which make student feel motivated or demotivated in class. When the overall results are evaluated, it is observed that teacher’s feedback to learners has a great role on students’ feelings about the lesson. When the teacher seems to be motivated herself and ready to provide feedback, it reflects to her students in the same way. However, when she seems to be demotivated, the students already become unwilling to carry out the tasks.

Other motivating roles of the teacher are being a caring, supportive and friendly person.

Also, it is concluded that the activities and the materials play crucial role on students’ attitudes toward English lesson. When they enjoy doing something, it is very easy for them to learn and for the teacher to teach. Due to the characteristics of their age group, they prefer being physically active and in the center of their own learning.

Another significant point is that when the overall findings are evaluated, it is observed that the atmosphere of the classroom has an essential role in terms of motivation. It is concluded that when there is a relaxing and funny atmosphere, the students may reach the highest level of motivation.

When all the potential motivating factors are available, the internal factors of the young children are activated. All these positive external reinforcements enable the young children to feel excited, happy, safe, confident and very positive towards the lesson. In short, they start to feel ready for the English lesson which will be held in a very friendly atmosphere.

Although the motivation in class is much discussed, teachers tend to neglect its effect in most of the situations and activities. Such studies indicate that motivation is very influential in students’ current success and future attitude towards language and its culture. In order to benefit much from language classes, langue teachers should be exposed to psychological training courses or inservice training concerning raising motivational elements in formal settings. Moreover, teachers may follow latest trend in language classes underlining the high importance of motivation of their students so that they can imply the positive effects of motivation and transfer such knowledge and application to their current langue classes.

The findings of this research again show that the more specific the positive feedback, the bigger the impact it has on students’ extrinsic motivation, specifically in relation to grades.

Feedback at the self or personal level (usually praise), on the other hand, is rarely effective. Praise is rarely directed at addressing the three feedback questions and so is ineffective in enhancing learning. When feedback draws attention to the self, students try to avoid the risks involved in tackling challenging assignments, to minimize effort, and have a high fear of failure to minimize the risk to the self.

It should be clear that providing and receiving feedback requires much skill by students and teachers. The model advanced in this article does not merely invoke a stimulus-and-response routine but requires high proficiency in developing a classroom climate, the ability to deal with the complexities of multiple judgments, and deep understandings of the subject matter to be ready to provide feedback about tasks or the relationships between ideas, willingness to encourage selfregulation, and having exquisite timing to provide feedback before frustration takes over. To be able to devote time and thoughts to feedback is aided when teachers automate many other tasks in the classroom and provide rich learning opportunities for all students and thus have the time and resources to be responsive to feedback.

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