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Basic contrasts: present simple and present continuous State verbs and event (action or dynamic) verbs State verbs normally without a continuous form Difference of meaning in stative and active verbs Other uses of present continuous Other uses of present simple Future time Basic contrasts: will, going to, present continuous Future continuous Future perfect Other ways of referring to the future Other future references Grammar 3 Past time Basic contrasts: past simple and past continuous Past perfect simple and continuous Used to and would Unfulfilled past events Polite forms Contrast with present perfect Grammar 4 Present perfect Present perfect simple Present perfect continuous Contrast of present perfect simple and present perfect continuous Time expressions with present perfect

Passive 1 Basic uses Using and not mentioning the agent Grammar 7 Passive 2 Have and get something done, need doir, Passive get Reporting verbs Verbs with prepositions Common contexts for the passive

Conditionals Basic usage: truths, real situations, hypothetical situations (present and past) Variations: if only, unless, and other alternatives to if, past events with results in the present, should, were to, happen to, if it were not for, if it hadn't been for Other ways of making a conditional sentence: supposing, otherwise, but for, if so, if not, colloquial omission of if, if and adjectives, if meaning although Grammar 9 Unreal time and subjunctives It's time, it's high time Wishes I'd rather and I'd sooner, I'd prefer As if, as though Suppose and imagine Formal subjunctives Formulaic subjunctive 46 54 Grammar 11 Modals: present and future 65 Don't have to and must not: absence of obligation, obligation not to do something Should: expectation, recommendation, criticism of an action, uncertainty with verbs of thinking, with be and adjectives describing chance after in case to emphasise unlikelihood Could: possibility or uncertainty, with comparative adjectives to express possibility or impossibility, suggestions, unwillingness Can: criticism, capability Must and can't: certainty, present time reference only May and might: although clauses, may/might as well, possibility or uncertainty with try Shall: certainty, what the speaker wants to happen Will: assumption, intention, refuse and insist Would: annoying habits, certainty Need: need to not a modal, need partly a modal Related non-modal expressions: had better, be bound to Grammar 12 Modals: past 72 Had to and must have: past obligation, past certainty Should have and ought to have: expectation, criticism of an action, should have and verbs of thinking, with be and adjectives describing chance, polite expressions Could have: past possibility or uncertainty, with comparative adjectives, unwillingness Could: past permission or ability, compared with could have May have and can't have: certainty, with surely Would not: unwillingness Would have: events in the past which did not happen, assumptions Needn't have and didn't need to: unnecessary actions done and not done Adverbs and modals: well, easily, obviously, really, just Inversion Inversion Inversion after negative adverbials Inversion after so/such with that Inverted conditional sentences without if Grammar 14 Emphasis Changing word order to change focus Adding words for emphasis Other means 78 85 Grammar 16 Reported speech 97 Problems: reported speech with modals, with conditionals, don't think Reporting verbs Functions: verbs that describe a function, verbs that describe actions Changes of viewpoint Grammar 17 Articles 104 Definite article (the), indefinite article (a/an), zero article Translation problems Grammar 18 Relative and non-finite clauses 111 Defining and non-defining clauses Which and that Who, whom, and whose When and where Omitting the relative pronoun Omitting which/who + be Clauses beginning with what and whatever Non-finite clauses containing an -ing form Grammar 19 Verbs + infinitive or -ing 118 Verbs followed by either -ing or infinitive with to Verbs with an object, followed by either -ing or infinitive with to Verbs normally followed by infinitive with to Verbs normally followed by -ing Verbs followed by infinitive without to Verbs followed by an object and to 131 138 Grammar 21 Verbs + prepositions Verbs followed by: in, for, of, with, from, on, against, about, out, at, to Grammar 22 Prepositions Following adjectives: of, about, with, at, on, to, by, for, in, from Following nouns: on, to, over, with, for Expressions beginning: in, with, at, on, beyond, by, for, out of, under, without, within, after