Definitation of work

ЎЗБЕКИСТОН РЕСПУБЛИКАСИ ОЛИЙ ВА ЎРТА МАХСУС

ТАЪЛИМ ВАЗИРЛИГИ

ЎЗБЕКИСТОН ДАВЛАТ ЖАҲОН ТИЛЛАРИ УНИВЕРСИТЕТИ

ИНГЛИЗ ТИЛИ СТИЛИСТИКАСИ КАФЕДРАСИ

Шамиев Мухиддин Бурхон ўғли

ИНГЛИЗ ТИЛИ 2-ФАКУЛЬТЕТИ, 308 А - ГУРУҲ

THE DEFINITION OF SUFFIXES.

КУРС ИШИ

«КУРС ИШИ ИЛМИЙ РАҲБАР:

ҲИМОЯГА РУХСАТ ЭТИЛДИ» катта ўқитувчи

“Инглиз тили лексикология”

кафедраси мудири, ф.ф.н., доц. _____________ М. Полвонова ____________ Ж.Матёқубов

“___” __________________ 2014 “___” _______________ 2014

Тошкент – 2014

Contents

Introduction 3

Chapter I. Affixation as a word formation device in English. Prefixes.

1. Affixation as productive way of word formation 4

2. Classification of prefixes 10

Chapter II. The definition of suffixes.

1. Classification of suffixes 14

2. Suffixes and endings 17

3. The origin of suffixes 18

Conclusion 25

The list of used literature .27

Introduction

The present course paper is devoted to the study "Affixation as a word formation device in English" which presents a certain interest both for theoretical investigation and for the practical usage.

The actuality of present course paper lies in learning prefixes and suffixes in the English language which are widely used to perform linguistic richness of the English language.

The aim of course is to study affixation and affixal morphemes according to certain patterns specific for the language (affixation, composition) or without any outword means of word formation.

The given purpose follows successive solution of the following tasks:

1. affixation as word formation

2. to give more information about prefixes

3. to give more information of suffixes (their meaning, origin etc).

The object of the work is based on detailed study of affixes which play important role in the word formation.

The subject matter of the course paper is to study affixation as most productive way of word formation.

The following methods were used: morphological and comparative, descriptive, observation methods, which help revile the main sources of affixation.

The novelty of the work is determined by the necessary of detail and different approaches, investigation of usage and the function of affixes in speech.

Theoretical importance of the course paper is that, the paper deals with the problems of word formation in particularly with the origin of affixation in the Modern English.

The practical value of work, is that the material and results of the given course paper can serve as the material for theoretical courses of lexicology as well as can be used for practical lessons in analytical reading, in seminars on lexicology. The structure of the work - the given course paper consists of introduction, 2 chapters which are followed by the list of the literature used in the course of the research

Introduction is about the aim, a method used in the course of it explains its actuality, purpose, practical and scientific value.

Chapter I includes 2 paragraphs.

The first paragraph is about word formation and the various types of word formation, affixation and gives information of them.

The second paragraph gives information on the theme of Prefixes and its classification. As we know prefixation is the one of most productive ways of building words.

Chapter II also includes 3 paragraphs.

The first paragraph deals with the problem of suffixes, various approached to the suffixes.

Second paragraph is about origin of the suffixes and their meaning.

Third paragraph is about the classification of suffixes. Suffixes classified into 3 groups and gives deep views about suffixes.

Conclusion deals with the theoretical and practical results of a paper.

The main resources were taken from the books of famous scientists as: Akhmanova O. S. Lexicology: Theory and Method, Howard Ph. New words for Old. Lnd. 1980, Arnold I.V. The English Word ,Burchfield R. W. The English

Language, Buronov, Muminov Readings on Modern English Lexicology, Abayev V.I. Homonyms .

Chapter I. Affixation as a word formation device in English.

1. Affixation as productive way of word formation

Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation. Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes; to stems. On the morphemically level every word formed by means of affixation has only one root - morpheme, which is its semantic certain and one or more derivational affixes. For instance, the words displease and realism have each only one root - morpheme and one derivational affixes the prefix dis and the suffix - ism. Where’s the noun reappearance consists of the prefix re-, the root morpheme appear and the suffix - once. On the derivational level derived words comprise a primary stem (the stem being in itself either a simple, a derived or compound stem) and a derivational affixes. Ex. violinist = Noun+ist - a simple stem,

friendliness (N+ly)+ ness - a derived stem, friendliness (N-Ыу) + ness - a derived stem, chairmanship =(N+N) + ship - a compound stem.

The stems of words making up a word cluster enter into derivational relation of different degrees. The zero degree of derivation is ascribed to simple words, i.e.words whose stem is homonymous with a root morpheme, atom, haste, devote, etc. derived words whose stems consist of a root - morpheme and a derivational affix are described as having the first degree of derivation, e.g. atomic, hasty, devotion, etc. Derived words formed by two consecutive stages of coining process the second degree of derivation, e.g. atomically, hastily, devotional, etc.

Derived words formed by two consecutive stages of coining process the second degree of derivation, etc, e,g. anatomical, hastily, devotional, etc.

In conformity with the division of derivational affix into suffixes and prefixes affixation is subdivided into suffixation and prefixing. Distinction is naturally made between prefix and suffixed derivatives, cf Unjust, rearrange, justify, arrangement. Words like reappearance, unreasonably, denationalize are generally qualified as prefix suffix derivatives. We must realize that this qualification is relevant only in terms of the constituent morphemes such words are made up of, i. e. from the angle of morphemic analysis. From the point of view of derivational analysis such words are mostly suffix or prefix derivatives, e. g. reappearance = (re + appear) + ance. A careful study of a great many suffix and prefix derivatives has revealed and essential difference between them.

Affixes may be divided into dead and living. Dead affixes are those are no longer left in modern English as component parts of words.

They can be singled out only by etymological analysis.

Ex, admit (from Lad + mittere): deed, flight. Living affixes are easily singled out from a word, e. g. freedom, childhood, marriage.

Living affixes are traditionally in their turn divided into productive and nonproductive. Productive affix are those, which are characterized by their ability to make new words.

Ex. er - baker, lender, ist - leftist, ism - ish₅ baldish; ind, -ness, -ation₅ -ее; -ry -or, -ance, ic are productive suffixes re-, un- , non, -anti - etc are productive prefixes. Non - productive affixes are those which are not esed to form new words in Modern English- Ex. -ard, -cy, -ive, -en, -dom, -ship, -fill, -en, -ity etc. Are not productive suffixes; in, ir (im-), mis - dis are not productive prefixes.These affixes may occur in a rear number of words but if they are not used to form new words in Modern English they are not productive.

But recent investigations prove that there are no productive and non productive affixes because each affix plays a certain role in word - formation. There are only affixes with different degrees of productivity, besides that productivity of affixes should not be mixed up with their frequency of occurrence in speech. Frequency of affixes is characterized by the occurrence of an affix in a great number of words. But productivity is the ability of a given suffix or prefix to make new words. An affix may be frequent but not productive.¹'

There are cases, however, where it is very difficult to drawer hard and fast line between roots and affixes on the one hand, and derivational affixes abd in flexional formatives on the other. The distinction between these has caused much discussion and is no easy matter altogether.

There are a roots in English which have developed great combining ability in the position of the second element of a word and a very general meaning similar to that of. an affix. They receive this name because semantically, functionally, structurally and statistically they behave more like affixes than like roots. Their meaning is as general. They determine the lexicon - grammatical class the word belongs to cf sailar: seaman, where - man is a semi-affix.

Another specific group is farmed by the adverb - farming suffix -ly, following adjective stems, and the noun - forming suffixes: -ing, -ness, -er and by -ed added to a combination of two stems: fainthearted, bng legged. By their almost unlimited combining possibilities (high valiancy) and the almost complete fusion of lexical and lexicon - grammatical meaning they resemble inflectional formatives. The derivation with these suffixes is so regular and the meaning and function of the derivatives so obvious that such derivatives are very often considered not worth an entry in the dictionary and they're fore omitted as self- evident- Almost every adjective stem can produce an adverb with the help of Jy_ and an abstract noun by taking up the suffix -ness. Every verbal stem produce the name of the doer by adding z§r and the name of th process or its result by adding -ing, A suffix approaching those in productivity is -ish denoting a moderate degree of the quality named in the stem. Therefore these words are explained in dictionaries by referring the reader to the underlying stem. For example, in concise oxford dictionary we read: «womanliness - the quality of being womanly; womanized in senses of the verb; womanishly - in a womanish manner; womanly adv-in a womanly manner, womanishness - the quality or state of being womanish».

These affixes are remarkable for their high valence also in the formation of compound derivatives corresponding to free phrases* Examples are: every day: every day ness.

Suffixation. The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. ( e.g. «educate» is a verb, «educatee» is a noun, and «music» is a noun, «musicdom» is also a noun). There are different classifications of suffixes : 1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech are given here : a) noun-forming suffixes, such as : -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom), -ism (ageism), b) adjective-forming suffixes, such as : -able (breathable), less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious), c) verb-forming suffixes, such as -ize (computerize) , -ify (micrify), d) adverb-forming suffixes , such as : -ly (singly), -ward (tableward), e) numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy).

1. Semantic classification . Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote:

1. the agent of the action, e.g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student),

2. nationality, e.g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English),

3. collectivity, e.g. -dom (moviedom), -ry (peasantry, -ship (readership), -ati (literati),

4. diminutiveness, e.g. -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling), -ette (kitchenette),

-5

1. quality, e.g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability).

1. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of stems are subdivided into:

1. suffixes added to verbal stems, such as : -er (commuter), -ing (suffering), - able (flyable), -ment (involvement), -ation (computerization),

2. suffixes added to noun stems, such as : -less (smogless), ful (roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish (childish),

3. suffixes added to adjective stems, such as : -en (weaken), -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).

1. Origin of suffixes. Here we can point out the following groups:

1. native (Germanic), such as -er,-ful, -less, -ly. b) Romanic, such as : -tion, -ment, -able, -eer. c) Greek, such as : -ist, -ism, -ize.

1. Russian, such as -nik.

1. Productivity. Here we can point out the following groups:

1. productive, such as : -er, -ize, --ly, -ness. b) semi-productive, such as : -eer, -ette, -ward. c) non-productive , such as : -ard (drunkard), -th (length).

Suffixes can be polysemantic, such as : -er can form nouns with the following meanings : agent,doer of the action expressed by the stem (speaker), profession, occupation (teacher), a device, a tool (transmitter). While speaking about suffixes we should also mention compound suffixes which are added to the stem at the same time, such as -ably, -ibly, (terribly, reasonably), -ation (adaptation from adapt). There are also disputable cases whether we have a suffix or a root morpheme in the structure of a word, in such cases we call such morphemes semi-suffixes, and words with such suffixes can be classified either as derived words or as compound words, e.g. -gate (Irangate), -burger (cheeseburger), -aholic (workaholic) etc. Prefixation. Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used : prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g. over- (overhead) ( cf over the table ). The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But the recent research showed that about twenty-five prefixes in Modern English form one part of speech from another (bebutton, interfamily, postcollege etc).

Prefixes can be classified according to different principles: 1.Semantic classification:

1. prefixes of negative meaning, such as : in- (invaluable), non- (nonformals), un- (unfree) etc, b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de- (decolonize), re- (revegetation), dis- (disconnect), c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as : inter- (interplanetary) , hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-student), pre- (pre-election), over- (overdrugging) etc.

1. Origin of prefixes: a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- etc.

1. Romanic, such as : in-, de-, ex-, re- etc. c) Greek, such as : sym-, hyper- etc.

When we analyze such words as : adverb, accompany where we can find the root of the word (verb, company) we may treat ad-, ac- as prefixes though they were never used as prefixes to form new words in English and were borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such cases we can treat them as derived words. But some scientists treat them as simple words. Another group of words with a disputable structure are such as : contain, retain, detain and conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that re-, de-, con- act as prefixes and -tain, -ceive can be understood as roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and are called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as derived ones. There are some prefixes which can be treated as root morphemes by some scientists, e.g. after- in the word afternoon. American lexicographers working on Webster dictionaries treat such words as compound words. British lexicographers treat such words as derived ones.

1. Classification of prefixes.

We call prefixes such particles as can be prefixed to fill words but are them selves not words with an independent existence. Native prefixes have developed out of independent words. Their number is small: a-, be-, un-, (negative), fore-, raid - and (partly) mis-, prefixes of foreign origin came into the language ready made, so to speak. They are due to systematic loans from other languages: when a number of analyzable foreign words of the some structure had been introduced into the language, the pattern could be extended to new formations i.e. the prefix then became a derivative morpheme. Some prefixes have second le-rely developed uses as independent words, as counter, sub, arch which does not invalidate the principle that primarily they were particles with no independent existence. The same

phenomenon occurs with suffixes also.

There are many prefixes, chiefly used in learned words or in scientific

terminology, which have come into the language through borrowing from modem Latin, as ante-, extra-. mtcr, para-, etc. The practice of word coining with thereparticles begins in the 16^lh century, but modern science only, i.e. in the 18^Lh and

esp the 19^lh century. With these particles there is a practical difficulty. They may represent 1) such elements or arc prefixes (in the above meaning ) in Latin or 6 reek, as a- (a caudal etc.), semi - ( semi-annual).

2) such elements as exist as prepositions or particles with an independent word existence, as intra. с ire urn / hyper, para. 3) such as are the stems of full words in Latin or 6 reek, as multinomial- / astro-, hydro.

This last group is usually termed combining forms (OED Webster). In principle, the three groups are on the same footing from the point of view of English _h As they represent loon elements in English with no independent existence as words. That macro-, micro - should be termed combing from while hyper -, hypro-, intro -. intra - a. o. are called prefixes by the OED, is by no means justified, Only such pts as are prefixed to fool English words of generals, learned, scientific or technical character can be termed prefixes. Hyper - in hypersensitive is a prefix, but hyper- in hypertrophy is not, as - trophy is no word.

We cannot however, under take to deal with all the prefixes with positive elements occurring in English. Such elements as astro-, electro -, galato -. hepato -. ascheo -, and countless others which are used in scientific or technical terminology have not been treated in this book. They offer a purely dictionary interest in any case- In the main, only those pts have been considered that fall under the above groups 1) and 2)But we have also in duded a few prefixes which lie outside this scope, as pre denoting number (poly -, multi -), the pronominal stem auto, which is used with many words of general character, and pts which are type — forming with English words of wider currency (as crypto -, neo -, pseudo -).

There is often competition between prefixes as there is between suffixes and in dependent words: over - and out - sometimes overlap, there is overlappingbetween un - (negative) and iiv, un- (refractive), d|s - and de_-_t between ante and pre_-, super - and trans -. super - and supra.

A pre - prefix combination may be based on three different conceptual patterns and accordingly present the prefixing the functional aspects: 1) the prefix has adjectival force (with sbs, as in anteroom, archbishop, со - hostess, ex -king): 2) The prefix has adverbial force ( with adjectives and verbs, as in unconscious, hypersensitive, informal, overanxious / unroll, rewrite, mislay): 3) the prefix has prepositional force ( as in prewar years, post - graduate studies, antiaircraft eun) afire, aflutter / anti - Nazi, afternoon / encage: sbs and verbs must be considered syntagmas with a zero determinate, the suffixes anti - Nazi, afternoon, encage being the respective determinants).

The preceding conceptual patterns are important in the determination of the stress: while a suffix. Based on an adjunct (primary relation tends to have two heavy stresses ( as in arch-enemy)) or may even have the main stress on the prefix ( as in subway). Has not more than a full middle stress in the other types.

The semi — independent, word - like status of prefixes also appears from their treatment in regard to stress. With the exception of regularly unstressed a -(as in afire, aflutter), be - (as in befriend), and em -, en - (as in em pi ace, encage) all prefixes have stress. To illustrate this important point a comparison with non -composite words of similar phonetic structure will be useful. If we compare the words re - full and repeat, morphemic re - / ri / in refill is basically characterized by presence of stress whereas non - morphemic re - [ ri ] is basically characterized by absence of stress. This is proved by the fact that under certain phonetically unpredictable circumstances, the phonemic stress of re -in re -full, though basically a middle stress where as phonemic absence of stress can never rise to presence of stress. They refilled the tank may become they refilled the tank (for the sake of contrast) or they refilled the tank (for emphasis), but no such shift is conceivable for mo no-morphemic repeat, incite, prefer etc. Which invariably maintain the pattern no stress / heavy stress. Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes. The interpretation of the terms prefix and prefixation now firmly rooted in linguistic literature has undergone a certain evolution. For instance, some time ago there were linguists who treated prefixation as part of word. — composition (or compounding). The greater semantic independence of prefixes as compared with suffixes led the linguists to identify prefixes with the first component part of a compound word. At present the majority of scholars treat prefixation as an integral part of word - derivation regarding prefixes as derivational affixes which differ essentially both from root - morphemes and non - derivational prepositive morphemes. Opinion sometimes differs concerning the interpretation of the functional status of certain individual groups of morphemes which commonly occur as first component parts of words. H, Marchand, for instance, analyses words like to everdo, to underestimate as compound verbs, the first component of which are locative particles, not prefixes. In a similar way he interprets words like income, onlooker, outhouse qualifying them as compounds with locative particles as first elements.

R. S. Ginzburg states there are about prefixes in the system of Modern English word - formation.¹

Unlike suffixation, which is usually more closely bound up with the paradigm of a certain part of speech, prefixation is considered to be more neutral in this respect. It is significant that in linguistic literature derivational suffixes are always divided into noun - forming, adjective — fonning and so on; prefixes, however, are treated differently. They are described either in alphabetical order or sub - divided into several classes in accordance with their origin; meaning or function and never according to the part of speech.

Prefixes may be classified on different principles. Diachronically distinction is made between prefixes of native andforeign origin. Synchronically prefixes may be classified: According to the class of words they preferably form. Recent investigations allow one to classify prefixes according to this principle. It must be noted thai most of the 51 prefixes of Modern English function in more than one part of speech forming different structural and structural - semantic patterns. A small group of prefixes may be referred to exclusively verb - forming (en-, be-» un-, etc).

Chapter II. The definition of suffixes.

1. Classification of suffixes.

Depending on purpose of work, various classifications of suffixes have been used and suggested. Suffixes have been classified according to their origin, parts of speech they served to form, their frequency, productivity and other characteristics.

Within the parts of speech suffixes have been classified semantically according to lexico-grammatical groups, and last but not least, according to the types of stems they are added to.

In conformity with our primarily synchronic approach it seems convenient to begin with the classification according to the part of speech in which the most frequent suffixes of present-day English occur. They will be listed accordingly together with words illustrating their possible semantic force.

It shall be, noted that diachronic approach would view the problem of morphological analysis differently, for example, in the word complete they would look for the traces of the Latin complet-us.

Noun-forming suffixes:

• age (bondage, breakage, mileage, vicarage); - ance/ - ence (assistance, reference); - ant/ - ent (disinfectant, student); - dom (kingdom, freedom, officialdom); - ее (employee); - eer (profiteer); - er (writer, type-writer); - ess(actress, lioness); - hood (manhood); - ing (building, meaning, washing); - ion, -sion, - tion, ation (rebellion, creation, tension, explanation);

• ism/ - icism(heroism, criticism); - ist (novelist, communist); - ment (government,nourishment); - nees (tenderness); - ship (friendship); - (i) ty (sonority).

Adjective-forming suffixes:

• able/ - ible/ - uble (unbearable, audible, soluble); - al (formal); - ic (poetic); - ical (ethical); - ant/ - ent (repentant, dependent); - ary (revolutionary) ;-ate/ - ete (accurate, complete); - ed/ - d (wooded); - fill (delightful); -

ian(African, Australian); - ish (Irish, reddish, childish); - ive (active); - less (useless);

• like (lifelike); - ly (manly); - ous/ ious (tremendous, curious); - some (tiresome);

• у (cloudy, dressy).

Numeral-forming suffixes:

• fold (twofold); - teen (fourteen); - th (seventh); - ty (sixty)

Verb-forming suffixes:

• ate (facilitate); - er (glimmer); - en (shorten); - fy/ - ify (terrify, speechify, solidify); - ize (equalize); - ish (establish).

Adverb-forming suffixes:

• ly (coldly); - ward/ - wards (upward, northwards); - wise (likewise).

If we change our approach and become interested in the lexico-grammatieal meaning the suffixes serve to signalize, we obtain within each part of speech more detailed lexico-grammatieal classes or subclasses.²

A lexico-grammatieal class may be defined as a class of lexical elements possessing the same lexico-grammatieal meaning and a common system of forms in which the grammatical categories inherent in these units are expressed. The elements of one class are substituted by the same prop-words the term prop-word is a term of syntax. It denotes a word whose main function is to provide the structural completeness of a word-group. A prop-word or an an aphonic word stands for another word already said or written. Personal pronouns he or she substituting nouns class them as personal nouns for either male or female beings. The words one, do and to are the most specifically English examples of prop-words. Compare the various functions of do and to in the Following: «Even if

1. did go. couldn’t do any good» Charles paused and said: «I m afraid that I want you to». «Why do you? (SAAU)» and characterized by identical morphological patterns and a common set of derivational affixes. Taking up nouns we can subdivide them into proper and common nouns. Among common nouns we shall distinguish personal names, names of other animate beings, collective nouns, falling into several minor groups, material nouns, abstract nouns and names of things.

Abstract nouns are signaled by the following suffixes:

• age, - ance/ - ence, - ancy/ - ensy, - dom, - hood, - ing, - ion/ - tion/ -ation, - ism, - ment, - ness, - ship, - th, - ty.

See examples above.

Personal nouns that are emotionally neutral occur with the following suffixes: - an (grammarian), - ant/ - ent (servant, student), - arian (vegetarian), -ее (examinee), - er (porter), - ician (musician), - ist (linguist), - ite (sybarite), - or (inspector), and a few others.

Feminine suffixes may be classed as a subgroup of personal noun suffixes. These are few and not frequent: - ess (actress), - ine (heroine), - rix (testatrix), -ette (suffragette).

The above classification should be accepted with caution. It is true that in a polysemantic word at least one of the variants witl show the class meaning signaled by the affix. There may be other variants, however, whose different meaning will be signaled by a difference in distribution, and these will belong to some other lexico-grammatical class. C.f. settlement, translation denoting a process and its result, or beauty which, when denoting qualities that give pleasure to the eye or to the mind, is an abstract noun, but occurs also as a personal noun denoting a beautiful woman. The word witness is more often used in its several personal meanings that (in accordance with its suffix) as an abstract noun meaning evidence or «testimony». The coincidence of two classes in the semantic structure of some words may be almost regular. Collectivity, for instance may be signaled by such suffixes as - dom, - ery, - hood, - ship. It must be borne in mind, however, that words with these suffixes are poly semantic and show a regular correlation of the abstract noun denoting state and a collective noun denoting a group of persons of

Alongside with adding some lexi co-grammatical meaning to the stem, certain suffixes charge it with emotional force. They may be derogatory: - ard (drunkard); — ling (underling); — ster (gangster); - ton (simpleton). These seem to be more numerous in English that the suffixes of endearment.

Emotionally coloured diminutive suffixes rendering also endearment differ from the derogatory suffixes in that they are used to name not only persons but things as well. This point may be illustrated by the suffix - y/ - ie/ - ey: auntie, cabbie (cabman), daddie, but also; hanky (handkerchief), nightie (nightgown). Other suffixes that express smallness are - en (chicken): - kin/ kins (mannikin); -let (booklet); -ock (hillcack); et (cornet).

The connotation of same diminutive suffixes is not one or endearment but of some outlandish elegance and novelty, particularly in the case of the borrowed suffix - ette (kitchenette, launderette, lecturette, maisonette, etc). The diminutive suffixes being not very productive, there is a tendency to express the same meaning by the semiaffix mini- ; mini-bus, mini-car, mini-crisis, mini-skirt, etc. Which may be added to words denoting both objects situations.

A suffix is a derivative final element which as or formely was productive in forming words. A suffix has semantic value, but it does not occur as an independent speech unit.

2.2.Suffixes and endings

It is necessary to point out the similarity and difference between derivative and functional morphemes. Morphologically, two words such as citizen and citizenry are formed after the same principle of root plus affix. At first sight, the conceptual structure also looks very much alike: the-s of citizens and the - ry of citizenry both express the idea of plurality, collectivity. But the difference in

1. Burchfield R. W. The English Language. Lnd. 1985 pp. 45-47.

valued is one between grammatical function and lexical meaning. The - s of citizens is the inflectional formative of the grammatical category «plural» where -ryjorms a class of words with the semantic basis «group», collectivity of...».

A suffixal derivative is primarily a lexical form. It is a two-morpheme word which behaves like a one-morpheme word in that it is «grammatically equivalent to any simple word in all the constructions where it occurs» (Bloch-Trager, OLA 54). An inflected word is primarily a grammatical form which does not meet the requirements just stated. While in a sentence such as this citizenry feels insulted we could substitute the simple, one-morpheme words crowd, multitude, nation for bi-morphemic citizenry without any change in the behavior of the other members of the sentence, replacement by the two-morpheme word citizens would involve a change of this to these and of feels to feel. The formatives - er, - est as expressing degree of comparison are endings, not suffixes. In a sentence such as Paul is older than Peter we could not substitute any one-morpheme word for bi-morphemic old-er whereas in he is rather о 1 dish the adj old can take the place of old-ish. It will also be interesting to note the different phonetic make-up of comparatives and super lateness compared with derived adjectives. Youngish, longish betray the morpheme boundary before — ish in that the final consonant does not change before the initial vowel of the derivative suffix whereas in younger, longer the consonants are treated as standing in medial position in unit words, just like finger or clangor, [jg] being the ante vocalic (and ante sonantic) allophone of [j].

1. 
   The origin of suffixes

As to the origin of suffixes, there are two ways in which a suffix may come

into existence: 1) the suffix was once an independent word but is no longer one; 2) the suffix has originated as such, usually as a result of secretion. Case 1) applies to a few native suffixes only. The suffixes - dem and hood are independent words still in OE, so the process where by a second-word becomes a suffix can be observed historically. An instance of case 2) is the suffix -ling which is simply the extended form of suffix -ing in words whose stem ended in Hall-way between

second-words and suffixes are certain second elements which are still felt to be words though they are no longer used in isolation: - monger, wright and-wise exist only as second parts of suffixs. I have treated them as semi suffixes. The fact that a word is frequently used as the second element of a suffix gives us no right to call it a suffix. Thus the following are not suffixes: = caster (as in broadcaster, gamecaster, newscaster), fiend (as in the AE words cigarette fiend, opium-fiend, absinthe-fiend, cocaine - fiend etc.), craft (as in witchcraft, leechcrajt, prestaraft, statecraft, smith raft, mother craft), or - proof (as in bomb-, fire-, rain-, sound-, water-, hole kiss-, humor-etc. proof) which Jazzperson wrongly terms one.

The contact of English with various foreign languages has led to the adoption of countless foreign words. In the process, many derivative morphemes have also been introduced, suffixes as well as prefixes. As a consequence, we have many hybrid types of composites. We have to distinguish between two basing groups. A foreign word is combined with a native affix, as in dear-ness, un-button. Just as the in production of a foreign word is an essentially uncomplicated matter, so is its combination with a native derivative element. As no structural problem is involved in the use of a foreign lexical unit, it can be treated like native words. This is the reason why native prefixes and suffixes were added to French words almost immediately after the words had been introduced. Suffixes such as - ful, -less, ness were early used with French words so we find faithful, faithless, clearness and others recorded by 1300. The case is different with foreign affixes added to native words. Here, the assimilation of a structural pattern is involved, not merely the adoption of a lexical unit. Before the foreign affix can be used, a foreign syntagma must have come to be familiar with speakers so that the pattern of analysis may be imitated and the dependent morpheme be used with native words. This is much more complicated. When it does happen, such formations are found much later than those of the first type. This is to be regarded as a general linguistic phenomenon. It explains why combinations of the types break-age, hindr-ance, yeoman-ry crop up much later and the less numerous. The early assimilation of

• able is exceptional. Some foreign affixes, as - ance, - al (type arrival), ity_ have never become productive with native words.

The majority of foreign suffixes owe their existance to the reinterpretation of loons. When a foreign word comes to be analyzed as a composite, a syntagma, it may acquire derivative force. The syntagmatic character of a word there fore is a precondition for the development of a derivative morpheme.

From landscape (which is Du landsdap) resulted scrape which is almost entirely used as the second element of suffixs, as in seascape 1799 and later earths cape, cloudscape, sands cape, mountains cape, moonscape, parks cape, skyscape, waterscape, house-scape, roads-cape, mindscape. Bottlegger attracted bookjegger one trading in obscene books, foodlegger «illicit food-seller, meatlegger, tirelegger» (used at a time when things were rationed in US).

The process of secretion requires some more comment. The basic principle is that of re-interpretation: but there are several ways in which re-interpretation occurs.

1. . A suffix may be analyzed by the general speaker as having two

contituent elements, the basis as an independent morpheme and the suffix as a derivative element. This is the case of the preceding types lemonade and land­scape. This process of direct re-interpretation is the form secretion commonly assumes.

1. . A suffix is not made up of two constituent elements as far as the general speaker is concerned. If aristocracy, democracy, plutocracy yield more or less jocular words such as landocracy, mobocracy, cottoncracy, this is due to a meeting and blending of two heterogeneous structural systems: a certain structural element of one linguistic system is isolated and introduced into another linguistic system. The speaker with a knowledge of Greek isolates - ocracy «rule» in a series of 6 reek-coined words and introduces it as a derivative element into the structural system of English. But dependent structural elements are tied up with certain morphologic conditions of the linguistic system to which they belong and cannot there fore be naturally transplanted, unlike words, which are independent lexical elements, not subject to any specific morphological conditions. Such coinages are felt to be hybrids by the word-coiner himself, so the process is not used for serious purposes as a rule. Admittance of such foreign derivative elements is also impeded by the fact that they bear no resemblance to any morpheme with which the hearer of the hybrid suffix is familiar. The linguistic situation is different with foreign-coined words of which one element is immediately associated with a morpheme of the hearers language. Words like barometer, thermometer are automatically connected with the independent word mater whose unstressed allomorph the words contain. This explains the rise and currency of speedometer, cream ometer and

quite recent drunkometer.

But otherwise, hybrid coinages of this derivative pattern will always have a

limited range of currency or the tinge of faketiousness, as bumpology, bumposopher (both jocular from hump «protuberance on the cranium as the sign of special mental faculies»), storiology, weather logy, dollolaty a. o. Parallel to theabove words in — ocracy are such in - ocrat, as mobocrat bancrat bankocrat. Very similar to the case of barometer / speed omoter is that of the American suffix = fest.

Fom the German words Sincerest and Turn fest, which were first used in the early 50 s in U.S. a series of other words were derived, such as smoke fest, walkfest, eatfest, stuntfest. bookfest, gabfest. The element - fest was obviously interpreted as the allomorph of feast. The word cavalcade was re-interpreted as containing the element caval-» horse» and the suffix-cade «parade» and attracted such coining as aerocade, aquacade (on a Latin basis of coining), autocade, camelcade, motorcade (on a native basis of coining), recent words which may not stand the test of time. From the word panorama the characteristic ending-rama was secreted with the meaning «pageant, show» and has recently led to such words as cinerama, motorama, autorama.

Sometimes ignorant but pretentious people take to coining words, re­interpreting foreign word in their own way. They vaguely feel that there is some characteristic termination in a 6 reek or Latin word which they then attach to some English basis to give the c.b.a «learned» tinge. As a result, we get barbarisms in-athon, coined after Marathon, such as danceathon, swimathon etg, in-thorium, such as corsetorium, lubritorium etc.

Thus, the rise of suffix illustrated by types aristocracy/ landocracy, barometer/ speedometer and others treated in the preceding passage can stay out pf

accounted for suffixal derivation.

There is yet a third way in which suffixes may arise. Words of apparently

only one constituent element may develop derivative morphemes. If we take such a word as hamburger, we observe that it has attracted other coining like cheeseburger, bufburger, fishburger. The analysis of the word cannot be, as one may feel tempted to assume, that of ham and burger as there is no ham in the humburger. So the word cheeseburger has not arisen from re-interpretation. What has taken place is a shortening of the morpheme hamburger into a fore-clipped -burger, this part being taken as representative of the semantic elements contained in hamburger. The suffix cheeseburger there fore is a clipped word for non-existent cheese hamburger. Parallel to - burger words are such in =_Jurture, as

shrimpfurder, krautfurter, chicenfurter. In election campaign words such as Hoovercrat, Willkiecrat, - crat was short for democrat. The word telegram 1852 gave rise to cablegram, radiogram, pidgeongram, lettergram where - gram is short for telegram/ Tnr diminutive suffix - ling prginated in the same way. Wolfling «young wolf» is a blend wolf and. young-ling «young animal»

The List of suffixes

Noun forming suffixes.

Verb forming suffixes.

Adverb forming suffixes.

Conclusion.

The course paper is devoted to the study of affixation. Suffixes is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes is the derivational affix which is added after the stem.

Suffixation is the most productive way of word formation.

The course paper consists of 2 chapters. In first chapter we spoke about lexicology, the types of lexicology, its connection with other aspects of linguistics such as grammar, phonetics, stylistics etc: them qualification paper gives information about subdivisions of lexicology. One if the most important subdivisions of lexicology is word formation. Word formation is a branch of science of the language, which studies the patterns on which a language forms new lexical items (new unities, new words). It's a process of forming words by combining roots affixal morphems. According to certain patterns specific for the language or with out any outword means. Two major groups of word formation may be distinguished;

1. Words formed as grammatical syntagmas, combinations of full linguistic signs (types: compounding, prefixation suffixation, conversion, and back derivation)

2. Words, which are not grammatical syntagmas, which are not made up of full linguistic sigus.

Ex: expsessive symbolism, blending, clipping, rhyme and some others.

Common for both groups is that a new word is based on synchronic relationship between morphemes.

Words formed by word-derivation have only stem and one or more derivational affixes. Some derived words have no affixes because derivation is achieved through conversion. Words formed by word - composition have two or more stems. The basic away of forming words in word - derivation, for instance, are affixation and conversion. As we mentioned above there are several types of word formation. And affixation is one of the most productive way of forming words. Beside affixation there are: word composition, conversion, abbreviation.

But as we said affixation is the most productive way of word formation. In the chapter I we give full information about affixation. Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems on the morphemically level every word formed by means of affixation has only one -rootmorpheme, which is semantic center and one or more derivational affixes.

In the second chapter subdivide affixation into suffixation and prefixing. In this chapter I try to give full information about suffixes, its problem, the origin of suffixes and classification of suffixes.

Suffixes is the formation words with the help of derivational affixes adding after the stem. Suffixation is usually bound up with the paradigm of certain part of speech. It is significant that linguistic literature derivational suffixes are always divided into nounforming, adjuctive forming, etc.

There are many borrowed suffixes from Latin, Romanic, Greek, Germanic and etc. Then we can found out information about classification of suffixes. Suffixes may be classified on different principles. Diachronically distinction is made between suffixes of native and foreign origin synchronically they are classified according to the meaning they convey to the derived word.

The list of used literature.

1. Karimov I. On measures to further improve foreign language learning system,Manaviat,Tashkent- 2012

1. Апресян Ю. Д. Лексическая семантика. Омонимические средства языка.М. 1974. с. 46.

1. Арнольд И. В. Лексикология современного английского языка. М.Высшая школа 1959. с. 212-224

2. Беляева Т. М. , Потапова И. А. Английский язык за пределами Анг.Л. Изд-во ЛГУ 1971 с. 150 -151.

3. Виноградов В. В. Лексикология и лексикография. Избранные труды. М.1977. с. 119-122.

4. AbayevV.I. Homonyms T. O'qituvchi 1981 pp. 4-5, 8, 26-29.

5. Arnold I. V. The English Word M. High School 1986 pp. 143-149.

6. Akhmanova O. S. Lexicology: Theory and Method. M. 1972 pp. 59-66.

7. Buranov, Muminov Readings on Modern English Lexicology T. O'qituvchi1985 pp. 34-47.

8. Burchfield R. W. The English Language. Lnd. 1985 pp. 45-47.

1. Canon G. Historical Changes and English Wordformation: New Vocabularyitems.N.Y. 1986 pp.284.

1. Dubenets E. M. Modern English Lexicology (Course of Lectures) M. ,Moscow State Teacher Training University Publishers 2004 pp. 17-31.

2. Ginsburg R. S. et al. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. M. 1979 pp.72-82.

3. Howard Ph. New words for Old. Lnd. 1980 p. 311.

4. Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. Oxford, 1982 pp. 246-249.

5. Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English. Longman, 1981 pp. 23-25

6. Maurer D. W. High F. C. New Words - Where do they come from and where do they go. American Speech. 1982 p.171

7. O. Jespersen. Linguistics. London 1983 pp. 395-412.

8. Smiruitsky A. I. Homonyms in English M. 1977 pp. 57-59, 89-90.

9. Sheard, John. The Words we Use. N. Y. 1954 p. 3

10. World Book Encyclopedia N.Y. 1993 p. 321.

Dictionaries.

1. Bloomsbury Dictionary of New Words. M. 1996 p. 276-278.

2. Hornby The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. Lnd. 1974 p.

24.92-93,111.

1. Meriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary Tenth Eddition 1998.

2. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English. Oxford 1964. Pp.147,167. V. D. Arakin English Russian Dictionary M. Russky Yazyk 1978 pp.23-24,117-119,133-134.

1^ Виноградов В. В. Лексикология и лексикография. Избранные труды. М.1977. с. 119-122

2^ The example is borrowed from A. Sheard, The Words We Use. Andre Deutsch, London, 1962.