Тексты для самостоятельной работы по иностранному языку по специальности Техническое обслуживание и ремонт радиоэлектронной техники

САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТЯМ РАДИОАППАРАТОСТРОЕНИЕ, ТЕХНИЧЕСКОЕ ОБСЛУЖИВАНИЕ И РЕМОНТ РАДИОЭЛЕКТРОННОЙ ТЕХНИКИ

2 КУРС 3 СЕМЕСТР

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Text A: «PLASTICS»

Plastics are non-metallic, synthetic, carbon-based materials. They can be moulded, shaped, or extruded into flexible sheets, films, or fibres. Plastics are synthetic polymers. Polymers consist of long-chain mole­cules made of large numbers of identical small molecules (monomers). The chemical nature of a plastic is defined by the monomer (repeating unit) that makes up the chain of the polymer. Polyethene is a polyolefin; its monomer unit is ethene (formerly called ethylene). Other catego­ries are acrylics (such as polymethylmethacrylate), styrenes (such as polystyrene), vinys (such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC)), polyes­ters, polyurethanes, polyamides (such as nylons), polyethers, acetals, phenolics, cellulosics, and amino resins. The molecules can be either natural — like cellulose, wax, and natural rubber — or synthetic — in polyethene and nylon. In co-polymers, more than one monomer is used.

The giant molecules of which polymers consist may be linear, branched, or cross-linked, depending on the plastic. Linear and branched molecules are thermoplas­tic (soften when heated), whereas cross-linked molecules are thermosetting (harden when heated).

Most plastics are synthesized from organic chemicals or from natural gas or coal. Plastics are light-weight com­pared to metals and are good electrical insulators. The best insulators now are epoxy resins and teflon. Teflon or polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE) was first made in 1938 and was produced commercially in 1950.

Plastics can be classified into several broad types.

1. Thermoplastics soften on heating, then harden again when cooled. Thermoplastic molecules are also coiled and because of this they are flexible and easily stretched.

Typical example of thermoplastics is polystyrene. Polystyrene resins are characterized by high resistance to chemical and mechanical stresses at low temperatures and by very low absorption of water. These properties make the polystyrenes especially suit­able for radio-frequency insulation and for parts used at low temperatures in refrigerators and in airplanes. PET (polyethene terephthalate) is a transparent thermoplas­tic used for soft-drinks bottles. Thermoplastics are also viscoelastic, that is, they flow (creep) under stress. Ex­amples are polythene, polystyrene and PVC.

2. Thermosetting plastics (thermosets) do not soften when heated, and with strong heating they decompose. In most thermosets final cross-linking, which fixes the molecules, takes place after the plastic has already been formed.

Thermosetting plastics have a higher density than thermoplastics. They are less flexible, more difficult to stretch, and are less subjected to creep. Examples of ther­mosetting plastics include urea-formaldehyde or polyurethane and epoxy resins, most polyesters, and phenolic polymers such as phenol-formaldehyde resin.

3. Elastomers are similar to thermoplastics but have sufficient cross-linking between molecules to prevent stretching and creep.

Vocabulary:

carbon — углерод

flexible — гибкий

fibre — волокно, нить

chain — цепь

identical — одинаковый, идентичный

molecule — молекула

branch — разветвленный

to synthesize — синтезировать

chemicals — химические вещества

to soften — смягчать

cellulose — клетчатка, целлюлоза

wax — воск

thermosetting plastics — термореактивные пласт­массы

to harden — делать твердым

coil — спираль

stretched — растянутый

transparent — прозрачный

rubber — резина, каучук

to decompose — разлагаться

soft-drink — безалкогольный напиток

to subject — подвергать

polyurethane — полиуретан

resin — смола

similar — сходный, подобный

sufficient — достаточный

to prevent — предотвращать

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Radio waves, light, X-rays, and some cosmic rays – they all belong to the same family. They travel at the velocity of light.

The wave has both electric and magnetic components which are bound together. At the end of its travel the wave gives up energy. The ether waves are those we know as wireless waves.

When the waves are too long they are “seen” as infra-red, when they are “seen” as ultra-violet. Shorter than the ultra-violet are X-rays and far shorter than the shortest of these are the “gamma” rays, and finally the cosmic rays.

The penetrative power of these increases as the wavelength decreases.

To sum up: all these electromagnetic waves travel through the ether at the same enormous speed; the different effect which they produce depends entirely upon their length.

Some more words about ultra-violet and X-rays.

Ultra-violet rays are familiar to most people as the particular art of sunlight that is “health-giving”.

The effect of the ultra-violet rays is to produce in the skin the vitamin that is important for the promotion of bone-growth.

The use of these rays in diagnosis is a powerful weapon of medicine.

One of the most valuable uses of ultra-violet rays in industry is the testing of the quality of certain goods.

X-raying is very important in metallic weldings.

X-rays were discovered by Rőntgen after whom the rays are sometimes called. The discovery of X-rays was quickly followed by its application to medicine.

NOTES AND COMMENTARY

2 КУРС 4 СЕМЕСТР

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Text: «TYPES OF PLASTICS»

1. Epoxy resin.

Epoxy resin is a thermoset plastic containing epoxy groups. Epoxy resin hardens when it is mixed with solidifier and plasticizer. Plasticizers make a polymer more flexible.

Epoxy resins have outstanding adhesion, toughness, and resistance to attack from chemicals. They form strong bonds and have excellent electrical insulation properties. Large, complex, void-free castings can be made from them. They are also used as adhesives, and in composites for boat building and sports equipment.

2. PVC (polyvinyl chloride)

PVC (polyvinyl chloride) is a thermoplastic polymer made from vinyl chloride is a col­ourless solid with outstanding resistance to water, alcohols, and concentrated acids and alkalis. It is obtain­able as granules, solutions, lattices, and pastes. When compounded with plasticizers, it yields a flexible mate­rial more durable than rubber. It is widely used for ca­ble and wire insulation, in chemical plants, and in the manufacture of protective garments. Blow moulding of unplasticized PVC produces clear, tough bottles which do not affect the flavour of their contents. PVC is also used for production of tubes or pipes.

3. Polystyrene.

Polystyrene is a thermoplastic produced by the polymerization of styrene. The electrical insulat­ing properties of polystyrene are outstandingly good and it is relatively unaffected by water. Typical applications include light fixtures, toys, bottles, lenses, capacitor dielectrics, medical syringes, and light-duty industrial components. Extruded sheets of polystyrene are widely used for packaging, envelope windows, and photographic film. Its resistance to impact can be improved by the addition of rubber modifiers. Polystyrene can be readily foamed; the resulting foamed polystyrene is used exten­sively for packaging.

4. Polythene (polyethene, polyethylene)

Polythene (polyethene, polyethylene) is a plastic made from ethane. It is one of the most widely used important thermoplastic polymers. It was first developed by the polymerization of ethane at a pres­sure of 2,000 bar at 200°C. This produced low-density poly­thene (LDPE). A relatively high-density form (HDPE) was synthesized in the 1950s using a complex catalyst. Poly­thene is a white waxy solid with very low density, rea­sonable strength and toughness, but low stiffness. It is easily moulded and has a wide range of uses in contain­ers, packaging, pipes, coatings, and insulation.

Vocabulary:

adhesion — прилипание

adhesive — клей

bond — связи, узы

insulation — изоляция

casting — литье

void — пустота

solid — твердое тело, твердый

acid — кислота

alkali — щелочь

to obtain — доставать, получать

granule — гранула

solution — раствор

lattices — латексы

paste — паста

yield — выход

durable — прочный

rubber — резина, каучук

garment — предметы одежды

lens —линза

capacitor — эл. конденсатор

syringe — шприц

light-duty — неответственный

envelope — зд. обрамление

impact — удар

improved — улучшенный

modifiers — модификаторы

addition — добавление

readily — легко, с готовностью

foam — пена

catalyst — катализатор

wax — воск

reasonable — приемлемый, неплохой

coating — слой, покрытие

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A GREAT INVENTION OF A RUSSIAN SCIENTIST

(to be read after Lesson 8)

Radio occupies one of the leading places among the greatest achieve­ments of modem engineering. It was invented by Professor A.S. Popov, the talented Russian scientist, who demonstrated the first radio-receiving set in the world on May 7, 1895. And it is on this day that we mark the anniversary of the birth of the radio.

By his invention Popov made a priceless contribution¹ to the devel­opment of world science.

Nearly at the same time an Italian inventor G. Marconi, who moved to Great Britain in 1896, got an English patent on using electromagnetic waves for communication without wires. As A.S. Popov had not yet pat­ented his invention by that time, the world considered Marconi to be the inventor of radio. But in our country it is A.S. Popov who we by right call an inventor of radio.

A.S. Popov was born in the Urals on March 16, 1859. For some years he had been studying at the seminary in Perm and then went to the University of St. Petersburg. In his student days he worked as a me­chanic at one of the first electric power-plants in St. Petersburg which was producing electric lights for Nevsky prospect.

After graduating from the University in 1882, A.S. Popov remained there as a post-graduate at the Physics Department. A year later he be­came a lecturer in Physics and Electrical Engineering in Kronstadt. By this time he had already won recognition² among specialists as an au­thority in this field.

After Hertz had published his experiments proving the existence of electromagnetic waves, A.S. Popov thought of a possibility of using Hertz waves for transmitting signals over a distance. Thus the first wire­less (radio) receiving set was created. Then Popov developed his device and on March 24, 1896 he demonstrated the transmission and reception of a radiogram consisting of two words: Heinrich Hertz. On that day the radio-telegraphy was converted from an abstract theoretical problem into a real fact. A.S. Popov did not live to see the great progress of his in­vention.

Popov's invention laid the foundation for further inventions and im­provements in the field of radio engineering. Since that time scientists all over the world have been developing the modem systems of ra­dio-telegraphy, broadcasting, television, radiolocation, radio navigation and other branches of radio electronics.

1. to make a contribution — внести вклад

2. to win recognition — получить признание

3 КУРС 5 СЕМЕСТР

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The construction of this machine was begun with aid from the government. For 20 years however little progress was achieved. In 1833 Babbage changed his plans for another computing machine which he called an analytical engine. This was to consist of three parts: (1) the "store", where numbers were to be stored or remembered;(2) the "mill" where arithmetical operations were to be performed on numbers taken from the store and (3) the "sequence mechanisms" which would select the proper operation.

Once, Countess of Lovelace, the daughter of the great English poet, Lord Byron, Augusta Ada Byron saw that computing machine. As she was a brilliant mathematician, she was the first who highly appreciated the idea put into the Babbage`s automatic computer. She wrote to him later that she was greatly impressed by his invention. They continued to work together for some years. Probably, it was somewhere in 1840, may be later, but they cooperated up to 1850. (She died in 1852 when she was only 37.) Nowadays she considered to be the first programmer in the world. But the first and second Babbage`s machines were not completely constructed although small parts of them were. Both Babbage and his son, who also tried to carry out his father`s ideas, died without seeing the result of their work. The failure to construct those machines was because of the absence of sufficiently accurate machine tools and of mechanical and electrical devices that finally became available around 1900-1910.

Another of the historical developments of automatic machines was about 1886. Dr. Herman Hollerith decided to experiment with cards with punched holes and with electrical devices to detect the holes and count them. He realized that cards bearing human language were hot readable by the machine; but cards could be prepared using a machine language, a language of punched holes. Hollerith`s experiments and machines were successful, and have led to a great development of machines using punched cards for business, accounting and statistical purposes’. These machines, punched card calculating machines, have become a base of business calculations and reports all over the world. The first automatic digital computer that worked was a machine called the Complex Computer, constructed in 1939. Dr. George R. Stibitz, an engineer, noticed around him a lot of troublesome arithmetic multiplying and dividing complex numbers, numbers which electrical engineers find necessary for analyzing alternating electrical circuits.

countess - графиня

troublesome- досадный, хлопотный

for analyzing alternating electrical circuits – для анализа электрических цепей переменного тока

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The first machine which would add numbers mechanically was invented by the French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal in 1642. It contained geared counter wheels (12) which could be set at any one of ten positions from 0 to 9. Each gear had a little tooth for nudging (13) the next counter wheel when it passed from 9 to 0 so as to carry 1 into the next column.

Some 30 years later, in 1673, another mathematician, G.W. Leibnitz, invented a device which would control automatically the amount of adding to be performed by a given digit, and in this way he invented the first multiplying machine.

Pascal’s and Leibnitz’s machines and their improved successors have given rise to electric-powered but hand-operated adding machines and desk calculating machines which are found throughout offices today.

The idea of an automatic machine which would not only add, subtract, multiply, and divide but perform a sequence of steps automatically, was probably first conceived in 1812 by Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University, England. Babbage intended that his machine should compute the values of the tabulated mathematical functions and print out the results. No attention would be needed (14) from the human operator, once the starting data and the method of computation had been set into the machine.

9. about 300 B.C. - около 300 года до нашей эры

10. A.D.- нашей эры

11. cipher [‘saife] – шифр, шифровка

12. geared counter wheels – зубчатые, счетные колесики

13. for nudging – для выталкивания

14. No attention would be needed - Никакого внимания не требовалось

3 КУРС 6 СЕМЕСТР

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In 1946 an automatic electronic digital computer was built. This machine used instead of relays standard radio tubes and parts, and aimed for high speed. It was ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator). It contained 20 registers where numbers of 10 decimal digits could be stored or accumulated. It could add numbers at the rate of 5,000 additions per second. It also contained a multiplier which would carry out from 360 to 500 multiplications per second, a "divider-square-rooter", and other units.

From 1952 the addition speed of computers has gone to more than 100,000 additions per second. The multiplication speed has risen to more than 10,000 per second. The amount of storage capacity, or memory, has changed from 72 storage registers to millions of registers. The reliability of automatic computer has increased to the point where a billion and ten billion operations take place between errors. Besides, automatic checking has been built into computer so that no wrong results are allowed out.

The description of the history of invention and construction of computers and data processors is only part of the story. What caused this development?

There have been two trends in the causes for this development. One is the growth of scientific and engineering knowledge. Take for example astronomy. Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein expressed general laws for the behavior of heavenly bodies. But the actual calculations for knowing where to look in the sky to see any particular heavenly body at any particular time have to be carried out numerically. Furthermore, the laws were general and in simple form, ignoring many uncomfortable details. Take for example calculations for particular heavenly bodies were specific and had to take into account many uncomfortable details. Take for example calculating the orbit of the moon: the bulge of the earth at the equator, where the earth is wider than it is at the poles, has an effect on the orbit or the moon, and this has to be calculated in order to predict to the minute and second where the moon will be at any particular time. Such calculations are laborious. Similar laborious calculations occur in electrical engineering, in physics, in chemistry, in nucleonic, and elsewhere.

The other main trend is from world of business. Here enormous quantities of records and calculations are required in order that business may function.

The growth of a great civilization has produced an enormous growth in the information to be handled and operated with. This provides the push, the energy, for the development of the electronic computers.

laws for the behavior of heavenly bodies – законы поведения небесных тел

to take into account – принимать во внимание

the bulge of the earth at the equator – выпуклость земли на экваторе

effect - влияние

enormous – огромный

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Text: «COMPOSITE MATERIALS»

The combinations of two or more different materials are called composite materials. They usually have unique mechanical and physical properties because they combine the best properties of different materials. For example, a fibre-glass reinforced plastic combines the high strength of thin glass fibres with the ductility and chemi­cal resistance of plastic. Nowadays composites are being used for structures such as bridges, boat-building etc.

Composite materials usually consist of synthetic fi­bres within a matrix, a material that surrounds and is tightly bound to the fibres. The most widely used type of composite material is polymer matrix composites (PMCs). PMCs consist of fibres made of a ceramic mate­rial such as carbon or glass embedded in a plastic matrix. Usually the fibres make up about 60 per cent by volume. Composites with metal matrices or ceramic matrices are called metal matrix composites (MMCs) and ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), respectively.

Continuous-fibre composites are generally required for structural applications. The specific strength (strength-to-density ratio) and specific stiffness (elastic modulus-to-density ratio) of continuous carbon fibre PMCs, for example, can be better than metal alloys have. Composites can also have other attractive properties, such as high thermal or electrical conductivity and a low coefficient of thermal expansion.

Although composite materials have certain advan­tages over conventional materials, composites also have some disadvantages. For example, PMCs and other com­posite materials tend to be highly anisotropic — that is, their strength, stiffness, and other engineering proper­ties are different depending on the orientation of the com­posite material. For example, if a PMC is fabricated so that all the fibres are lined up parallel to one another, then the PMC will be very stiff in the direction parallel to the fibres, but not stiff in the perpendicular direction. The designer who uses composite materials in structures subjected to multidirectional forces, must take these anisotropic properties into account. Also, forming strong connections between separate composite material com­ponents is difficult.

The advanced composites have high manufacturing costs. Fabricating composite materials is a complex proc­ess. However, new manufacturing techniques are devel­oped. It will become possible to produce composite mate­rials at higher volumes and at a lower cost than is now possible, accelerating the wider exploitation of these materials.

Vocabulary:

fibreglass — стекловолокно

fibre — волокно, нить

reinforced — упрочненный

expansion — расширение

matrix — матрица

ceramic — керамический

specific strength — удельная прочность

specific stiffness — удельная жесткость

anisotropic — анизотропный

4 КУРС 7 СЕМЕСТР

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FROM CALCULI TO MODERN COMPUTER

Although, the first modern automatic computers began to work in 1944, the story of the development of ideas, devices, and machines entering into that automatic computer goes back a long time into the past. Problems of calculating with numbers, and recording numbers, have pressed upon human beings for more than five thousand years.

Probably the first of the ideas to deal with numbers is the idea of using small objects, such as pebbles seeds, or shells, to count with, to supplement the fingers.

People, however, find it troublesome to count only in units - it takes too much time and effort. So early a second idea appears: the idea of composing a new unit equal to ten of the old units. The source of this idea is clearly the fact that a man has ten fingers; with this idea you could designate 87 by referring to all the fingers of 8 men, and then 7 more fingers on one more man. In order to deal with numbers in their physical form of counted objects, a third idea appears: a specialized, convenient place upon which to lay out the counted objects. Such a place may be a smooth piece of ground, slab of stone, or a board.

It becomes convenient to mark off areas on the slab according to the size of unit you are dealing with - you have one area for ordinary units, one area for tens, one area for hundreds, and so on. These developments gave birth to the abacus,(1) the first computing machine. This device consisted of a slab divided into areas, and a supply of small stones for use as counters or objects to keep track of numbers (2). The Greek word for slab was abax, and the Latin word for the small stones was calculi, and so the first computing machine, the abacus was invented, consisting originally of a slab and counting stones, and later on, a frame of rods strung with beads,(3) for keeping track of numbers while calculating.(4)

The system of numbering and the, abacus go hand in hand together. The abacus is still the most widely used computing machine in the world.

Then appeared the Arabic positional notation for numerals (5) which reached Western Europe in the 1200’s. Just as the small counting stones or calculi could be used in any area on the slab, so (6) the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 could be used in any position of a numeral. Just as the position on the slab answered the question as to whether units, tens, hundreds, etc., were being counted, (7) so the place or column or position of the digit (as in 4786 with its four places) answered the question as to what kinds of units were there being counted. And - this was the final key idea - just as a place on the slab could be empty, (8) so the digit 0 could mark “none” in place of column of a number.

1. abacus ['aebakas] - счеты

2. to keep track of numbers – удерживать

след чисел

3. a frame of rods strung with beads - рамка из прутьев, на которые нанизаны бусинки

4. while calculating - при вычислении .

5. positional notation for numerals - позиционная система счисления цифр

6. Just as .... , so ...- точно также как…, так и ...

7. as to whether units, ... were being counted - относительно того, подсчитывались ли единицы, ..

8. empty - пустой, свободный

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TEXT B. DATA ENTRY DEVICES

The keyboard is a primary data entry devices with buttons that resemble those on a typewriter used to enter commands and data by typing out words and numbers. Many keyboards have features that aid in entering data for interactive graphics tasks, but more often so-called graphic-input devices are used instead.

Graphic-input devices allow operators to enter data in an easy-to-interpret graphic form, primarily to specify lines and points. This task is usually accomplished by controlling the position of a set of cursor cross-hairs on the screen. Some devices are touched onto the screen for more direct interaction. Graphic-input devices are also used to select items from a menu.

There are several types of graphic-input devices. Some CAD/CAM systems use only one device, while other systems raphe- use two or three different types. The major types of graphic-input devices are: light pens, joystick, track balls, mice, digitizers, and voice data entry devices. In addition, automated drawing entry devices permit input of an entire document without manual intervention. Let us consider some of them.

Light pens. Light pens are shaped like a pen with a wire connected to it to interact directly with the display. These devices can be used for positioning a cursor as well as for pointing to and selecting from menus displayed on the screen. Light pens consist of a stylus containing a photocell. The stylus produces an electronic signal when it is placed on the screen and detects light. This signal is sent to the com outer, which determines the screen location being illuminated at the time the signal is generated.

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